LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Shelf.. \^riG 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




Partial View of School Room, Showing Exposition Material. 



THE NEW METHOD; 



OK, 



SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 



POK TEACHERS OE RURAL, VILLAGE, CITY, NORMAL, AND 
COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS. 



SHOWING 

HOW THE BEST METHODS OP TEACHING WILL RESULT IN THE BEST SCHOOL 

EXPOSITION, AND HOW THE BEST SCHOOL EXPOSITION WILL 

SUGGEST THE BEST METHODS OF TEACHING. 

By RrHEBER HOLBROOK, 

Associate Principal National Normal School, Lebanon, O. Author of "^ Outlines 
of U. S. History," "Hand-Book of Experiment in Natural Philosophy," Etc. 



/'^,xj •''Reading maketh a full man, confei'ence a ready man, and 
^ K writing an exact man." 



■377..^' 

INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA: 

NORMAL TEACHER PUBLISHING HOUSE, 

J. E. SHERRILL, PROP. 

1881. 




Copyright, 

1881. 

By R. Heber Holbrook, 






% 



PREFACE. . 

For more than a decade I have been urging as editor, institute 
instructor, and practical teacher, the failure of our school work in 
giving producing power to the pupils. 

In the years 1876 and 1877, a most excellent opportunity to carry 
my ideas into practical operation in the public graded schools, was 
afforded. 

The results were satisfactory and occasioned considerable inter- 
est and favorable comment ; so much so that many teacher friends 
extracted from me a promise to set forth the details of my plans 
and ideas in such form as would enable them and the profession 
generally to have the benefit of them. 

To redeem this promise is the object of this little work. I 
humbly trust it may do some good. 

In appendix C will be found the development of the philosophical 
principles upon which rests the Exposition idea. It should prop- 
erly appear as the preface, but feeling that the actual practice 
would perhaps be more acceptable than abstract theory, I have 
placed it wiiere it may least obstruct the way of the practical 
teacher. Nevertheless, I deem its perusal essential to a fair appre- 
ciation of the work. 

The other appendixes will, I hope, be found sufficiently valuable 
to explain and warrant their insertion. 

I desire here to acknowledge the kindness and liberality of Mr. 
J. E. Sherrill, who has patiently borne with many expensive and 
trying circumstances, unavoidably incident to the issuing of this 
work. R. H. H. 

National Normal School, Lebanon, 0., 1S81. 



(iii) 



TO 



MR. H. N. GREEN, DR. J. INGRAM, AND MR. HOSEA ALLEN, 



Public School Trustees, 



ViNELAND, N. J. 



In testimony of the cheerful, generous and invaluable assistance 
which they uniformly granted the author when carrying out, in the 
schools under their charge, the plans and ideas set forth in the en- 
suing pages, 



THIS LITTLE WORK 



IS 



Most Respectfully Inscribed By Their Grateful Friend, 



The Author. 



(iv) 



CONTENTS 



-o- 



PART I. 

Statement of Subject. 

Chap. 1. Introduction 7 

Chap. 2. Deflnition of Expositions 8 

Chap. 3. Objects of the Exposition 11 

PART II. 
Preparation of Material. 

PAGE 

Chap. 1. Introduction 13 

Chap. 2. Manner of Preparation 14 

Chap. 3. Time Used in Preparation 16 

PART III. 

Sources of Materials. 

Chap. 1. Introduction 17 

Chap. 2. Reading 18 

Chap. 3. Spelling 21 

Chap. 4. Arithmetic 22 

Chap. 5. Geographj'^ 23 

Chap. 6. Grammar 25 

Chap. 7. Writing 28 

Chap. 8. Music 29 

Chap. 9. Drawing 29 

(V) 



VI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Chap. 10. U. S. History 30 

Chap. 11. Physiology 38 

Chap. 12. Natural Philosophy 41 

Chap. 13. Chemistry G3 

Chap. 14. Botany GG 

Chap. 15. Geology 76 

Chap. 16. Zoology 81 

Chap. 17. Algebra 82 

Chap, 18. Geometry 85 

Chap. 19. Trigonometry 87 

Chap. 20. Astronomy 88 

Chap. 21 . Calculus and Mechanics 88 

Chap. 22. Languages 8S 

Chap. 23. Rhetoric 89 

Chap. 24. Resume 90 

PART IV. 

Mounting the Material. 

Chap. 1. Introduction 91 

Chap. 2. Mounting Individual Papers 92 

Chap. 3. Mounting the Papers of a Class 94 

Chap. 4. Mounting the Material of Whole School 96 

PART V. 

Appendixes. 

Extract from Report of State Superintendent of Education of 
New Jersey, Concerning the Vineland Public Schools. (Ap- 
pendix A) 98 

Second Vineland School Exposition 100 

Outline of Material Sciences. (Appendix B) 103 

First Principles. (Appendix C) 105 

Outlining, Defined and Explained. (Appendix D) 126 

Is There a Science of Education? (Appendix E) 130 



SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

« ^m » 

PART I. 



Int]'*oduction. — Deftnition. —Objects. 

CHAPTER I. 

Introduction. 

Teaching will not be a profession, and education will not be a 
science until the methods and results of teaching are put upon per- 
manent record for educational philosophers, and others who are in- 
terested, to examine, compare and form judgments upon. 

The generalizations of all science are based upon observed pheno- 
mena and accumulated data, and the prelude to a true science of 
pedagogics will be an era of careful and intelligent accumulation of 
data from which will be obtained principles and laws — which prin- 
ciples and laws will be fixed and reliable because they will be the 
inductions from fixed and reliable facts. 

At a late meeting of State and City Superintendents of public 
schools, an eminent statesman called in question the methods and 
results of educational practice of to-day, as compared with those of 
years past, citing the failures at West Point entrance examination 
as evidence. While the Supermtendents present replied with much 
zeal and some heat to the reflections of the honorable gentleman, 
nothing was more apparent than the need of products of school work 
of the past Avith which to compare products of the school work of 
the present. Had such materials been in existence for the common 
examination of Congressmen and Superintendents, the question 
would have been eas}^ of settlement. But, as it was, either party 
could make at pleasure, statements, which might or might not be of 
worth, without fear of contradiction or disproof by some facts. 



8 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

The national attempts being made to display the products of the 
arts and sciences have also brought to light the comparative vreak- 
ness of educational workers. The great variety and indeflniteness 
of opinion as to what educational products can be displayed, as to 
how they should be prepared, and how mounted, has made educa- 
tional exhibits a marvel of heterogeneous, purposeless ununity, from 
wMch a thoughtful student soon discovers he can learn very little. 

There is no reason to conclude, however, that because of the com- 
parative failure of past attempts to exhibit systematically and in- 
structively the product of school work, there is no prospect of suc- 
cess and that the problem is inherently impracticable. True, it is a 
striving to materialize, as it were, the most evanescent and subtle 
of influences and practices, but we must proceed here as do 
physicists in their investigations of the impondera])le agents. The 
effects and products of heat are not the less abundant because heat. 
itself is so subtle and intangible. Neither are the methods and 
results of teaching incapable of being caught up and solidified for 
patient study and examination, because of their refined character. 
On the contrary, upon the successful accomplishment of this undertak- 
ing depends the highest interests of our profession, and toward this 
end every thoughtful educator must earnestly labor. He should 
also willingly gTant to every conscientious effort in this direction 
the encouragement of attention and considerate appreciation. 

It is the object of this work to offer suggestions for the prepara- 
tion, from the usual and regular school work, of materials, which 
will be tangible and permanent evidence of the processes of teachers 
and pupils in schools of all grades. 

It is also hoped that educators will see that in the preparation of" 
these materials according to these suggestions is to be found a most 
important aid to the improvement of prevailing false methods and 
to the introduction of new and better methods. 

CHAPTER 11. 

Definition. 

A School Exposition is the exhibition, by systematic arrange- 
ment, of the regular work of every j^upil of every class in such man- 
ner and place as will enable every patron to examine it at leisurCy 
and easily gain therefrom reasonably correct information as to the 



DEFINITION. 9« 

ability and progress of every child iu every class, the capabilities 
of children at different ages, the degrees of advancement which they 
may reach, the different kinds of work and manner of working of 
different grades, the comparative ability of different teachers and 
pnpils, and the destinctive methods of each teacher. 

The Exposition mnst be systematically arranged, so that the vis- 
itor may easily find desired materials, and so that results may be 
easily subjected to comparison and contrast. 

The materials of the Exposition should be so arranged as to enable 
the visitor to examme them comfortably and leisurely. This is a 
most important point. No just idea of school work can be obtained 
by a person who, while examinmg it, must be in a position too un- 
comfortable to be endured for a length of time necessary for the in- 
spection. 

The work should be so prepared as to make its examination and 
comprehension easy. It should be entirely self-explanatory. This 
is the most difficult feature of the Exposition. It is thought, though,, 
that in the plans to be submitted, it is completely provided for. 

The Exposition should inform the patrons. 

The ignorance of the public as to the proper advancement of pupils 
at certam ages is one of the greatest obstacles experienced by the 
true teacher. Popularity is often gained by hurrying through sub- 
jects and books, at the expense of thoroughness. This would be im- 
possible if parents could be informed how well as well as how/ast 
their children advanced in their studies. 

Again, it will be noticed that an Exposition is not an ''exhibition." 
The Exposition is the display of the regular work of every pupil, of 
every class. An "exhibition" is the display of irregidar work of a 
feio pupils at the expense of all the regular work of all of the pupils. 
An " exliibition " is usually an oral rhetorical display, gotten up by 
a school in which no rhetorical instruction is given. It is an attempt 
upon the part of the teacher to gain credit for the school by dis- 
playing what the school does not do as a school, and by ignoring all 
that it does do. It is an enlargement of the practice of those teach- 
ers who, when a visitor comes in, suspend all the regular exercises,, 
and call upon precocious pupils to parrot off pretty poems for the 
entertainment of said visitor, on the reasonable supposition, doubt- 
less, that the regular school work would be anji;hing but entertain- 



10 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

ing. This is all after the manner of the Irishman who, upon being 
asked for the direction to a certain dwelling, laboriously explains at 
great length the location of a particular house, and then declares that 
that is not the one. Too much of school work is after this fashion. 
The cause lies in the ignorance of the public as to what constitutes 
true school work. It Avill be the especial object of the Exposition 
to remove both the cause and its disastrous effect. People must be 
taught that the exhibition of the regular work can be made more en- 
tertaining than anything else, and teachers must learn that if their 
work is not attractive and entertaining, the fault is their own. 

Let it be understood that while reference is continnall}' made to 
graded schools, the Exposition is not in any way coulined to them. 
The methods and suggestions to be offered are for every class of 
school, from the ungraded country district school to the uuiversit3\ 
Indeed, it is the especial feature and power of the Exposition that it 
exhibits the work of every pupil in any school in such completeness 
that the data necessary' to compare it intelligently and fairly with 
the work of any pupil of any other school will always accompany it, 
and be presented so self-explanatorily that not only professional 
teachers, but all patrons, mothers and fathers, and others interested, 
may easily and correctly apprehend them, and so be enabled to judge 
adequately of any work exhibited, and so of the school producing it. 

Work coming from a country district school, and prepared as here 
suggested, may be put beside work from any grade of a graded 
school and compared with it, and by the comparison it may be at 
once determined to what grade it properly belongs. This fact is 
mentioned here, because the first objection usually offered to the 
Exposition is, it can be used only in graded schools, and in schools 
simila7'ly graded; whereas the particular object of the Exposition 
is to present all kinds of work from all grades or schools in such 
completeness and with such clear reference to common data that 
fair and adequate comparisons maj^ be easih' made. 

The great defect in the Educational Exhibit at our late Centennial 
was the lack in clearness and fullness of explanation as to the j7re- 
paration of the work exhibited. The conscientious observer was 
continually at loss as to the pedagogical vahie of the materials 
^presented, owmg to the general failure upon the part of the exliibit- 



11 OBJECTS OF THE EXPOSITIOX. 

ors to explain their work, or to prepare the work so that it would 
explain itself. 

If the simple directions about to be given are adopted by State 
and City Superintendents, the future Educational Exhibits made 
in this country will be full of suggestion and instruction. 

CHAPTER III. 

Objects of the Exposition. 

A Superintendent or Teacher who purposes submitting the work of 
his school to the examination of his patrons and fellow teachers 
should have clearly settled in his mind at the beginning of the year 
which points are to be exhibited. — Indeflniteness of plan or delay 
in its execution will bring confusion and incompleteness. 

The school work is expressive of two things, the progress of the 
pupil and the methods of the teacher. All material exhibited should 
distinctly expose these phases of school life. 

Now, to determine just the points that will serve most directly and 
truthfully to express the doings of both pupil and teacher, and which 
at the same time are capable of being set forth easily and distinctly, 
is not an easy task, and will, not be accomplished in a first attempt. 
Many intelligent trials will have to be made and all ideas subjected 
to the test of successful application before reliable conclusions 
are reached. Mere theories will be found delusive and impracticable. 
Only that which has. been faithfully tried and found possible should 
be finally accepted. To these vigorous conditions every sugges- 
tion here presented has l)een most conscientiously subjected. In 
every instance, the statements are not of what may he done, but of 
what has been done, and can he done. 

A school Exposition, properly prepared will display, for the leis- 
urely examination by patrons while seated, the school work so ar- 
ranged as to exhibit clearly and self -explanatorily : 

1. The Regular Work of every pupil in every class. 

2. The Name of the pupil doing the work. 

3. The Age of the pupil. 

4. The Grade of the pupil. 

5. The Year of the School Course in which the pupil is. 
C. The Branch of Study from which the work is taken. 



12 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

7. The particular Subject in the branch on which the work is pre- 
pared. For instance: ^/'««c/i, Arithmetic; Sitbject,T>ecu\vd\s, 

8. The Date at whicli the work was prepared, showing at what 
period of the school year the work was taken up. 

9. The Number' of the exercise in the series of exercises taken 
from a given class. 

10. The Amount of Time used by each pupil in preparing each ex- 
ercise. 

11. Tlie Average Amount of Time used by the class in preparing 
each exercise. 

12. Whether the work was prepared as Study. 

13. Whether the work was prepared as Recitation. 

14. Whetlier the worli was prepared as Review. 

15. Whether the work was prepared as Periodic Examination. 

16. Wliether the work was prepared as Final Examination. 

17. The Standing of eacli pupil obtained in any given exercise. 

18. The Ranlv in any given excercise of any pupil as compared with 
all the other pupils in tlie class. 

19. The Average Standing of the whole class. 

20. The Number of Pupils in the class. 

21. The Number and Names of Pupils absent from any given exer- 
cise. 

22. The Improvement made l^y eacli Pupil in each subject during a 
given time. 

23. The Improvement made by a Class, as a whole, in any given 
subject. 

24. The Name of the Teacher. 

25. The Course pursued by the teacher in any given subject. 
2G. The Methods used by a teacher in any given subject. 

27. The Comparative Value of same kind of work prepared under 
direction of different teachers. 

28. For Comparison, the Methods used by different teachers in the 
same subjects. 

29. The Features of the Organization or System of schools from 
which the work is taken. 

30. The Character of Work done by different grades. 

31. The Name of the Superintendent or Principal. 

32. The Name and Locality of the School. 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

It may seem ambitious to attempt to give simple and practicable 
arrangements whereby all these pomts may be attained, yet, the 
value and importance of such an undertaking will secure the atten- 
tion of every professional teacher to any effort in this direction, 
however humble. And if the effort is successful in any degree, 
teachers who have the real interests of the profession at heart will 
promptly adopt the suggestions and proceed at once to put them- 
selves and their work on permanent record for the encouragement 
of pupils, information of patrons, and for suggestive inspiration to 
their fellow workers. 



PART II. 

Preparation of Materials 

CHAPTER I. 

Introduction. 

The term Preparation, has reference alone to the condition of the 
pupil while performing the work which is to be preserved and ex- 
hibited. School Exhibits usually include little more than specimens 
of penmanship, drawing and examinations. It is the object, of the 
Exposition to place in form for inspection results of the pupils efforts 
prepared under all the various conditions to which as a pupil he is 
subjected. These conditions are various, as the questions, which 
an intelligent inspector of the work will ask, indicate : How was 
this prepared? Was it done as a study? Was it put down from 
memory ? How long did it take ? After how much instruction was 
it done ? How many hours, days, weeks, or months of study does it 
represent ? Work prepared under these different conditions will rep- 
resent so many different phases of the pupil at work, each one of 
which is of interest to the examiner of the work, each one of which 
it is of the utmost importance that the teacher should recognize and 
consider in assigning duties to the pupils. It will also be found to be 
important that these different conditions will suggest a variety in 
character of materials for Exposition. With regard to the condi- 
tion of the preparation, the work of pupils in a school is of three 
kinds: 



14 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

1. — Study at their desks witli use of texts. 

2, — Becitation, at class, from memory, what they have studied. 

3. — Examination, brief or extended, written memoriter. 

CHAPTER 11. 

Manner of Preparation. 

Study. All work which is prepared at the study seats with the 
aid of the texts and reference books should be designated Study. Of 
course it will be written study. Tliis writing out the points of a 
lesson as they are determined by the pupil will be found to be the 
best means of securing thorough mastery of the lesson. Work pre- 
pared in this manner should be neater and more correct than that 
prepared as Recitation or Examination, since the pupil is more at 
leisure and under less nerv^ous strain than when depending upon his 
memory. The ease and facility with which lessons will be thus 
prepared and the high degree of neatness and business style which 
can be attained and made habitual, will surprise both, pupils and 
teachers, and prove a most valuable result of the practice. 

These written studies will usually be examined at the Recitation, 
sometimes by exchanging and having papers read and criticised, 
sometimes without exchanging. Every paper should be marked at 
the close of the recitation by the critic, by the pupil, or by the teach- 
er, and the Standing recorded on the teacher's register. This affords 
a fair and equal estimate of the work of the pupils, and should be 
preserved faitMull3^ 

Frequently the teacher will prefer to reserve the papers for his 
own examination and marking. In such cases, they should, when 
marked, be returned to the pupils, and they be required to report 
orally the correction of errors made, at next recitation. When the 
papers have served their purpose for recitation, they should be col- 
lected by the teacher and preserved, in order, for the Exposition. 

Becitation. Oral recitations, though useful and indispensable, are 
a poor test of the knowdedge or power of the pupils. Either each 
pupil recites but little or few pupils recite, making any attempt at 
determining the standing of the pupils either insufficient or unfair. 
This may be remedied by occasionally substituting for the oral reci- 
tation a written recitation. Let the pupils be informed before hand 



MANNER OF PREPARATION. 15 

that a written Recitation will be had of. the next lesson. This Avill 
enable them to come with paper suitably headed and prepared for 
the exercises. Instead of the scattering questions of the oral recita- 
tion, all the pupils are now required to answer in writing the same 
questions. These papers will be examined by the teacher, and each 
pupil's standingdetermined by one standard. So, not only are the 
pupils subjected to a fair and searching test, taut the valuable habit of 
readily expressing their ideas in writing is formed. The ease, fac- 
ility and cogency of expression w^hich young pupils attain under 
this management are its best and sufficient recommendation. 

No more time than the usual recitation period should ever be used 
for this exercise. This should be insisted upon. If it is, the pupils 
learn to be quick and correct. If it is not, irregularities, waste of 
time and lack of power will be the result. 

These written recitations should be held, not too frequently, but 
just as the needs of the class seem to dictate. Great care should be 
taken that they do not become a means of overtasking pupils and 
teacher, also that thej^ do not become merely formal. Every exer- 
cise should he marked, either by the teacher, or by the pupils. by 
"exchanging", or by the pupil without exchanging. The standings 
thus obtained should, of course, be carefully preserved to make up 
the record of the pupil. 

Beview. This term should be restricted to that examination whicli 
covers the gTOund of several lessons, but for the preparation of which 
the usual study-period is given, and for the waiting of which only 
the usual recitation-period is given. The exercise should be treated 
as the preceding, excepting that the teacher will almost always ex- 
amine the papers. Sometimes, though, it will be well at the close of 
the recitation to have the pupils exchange their written reviews and 
criticise them as their next lesson, the next recitation being then 
used to hear the reports of these criticisms. These papers are of 
course carefully marked and the standings put upon the register. 

Periodic Examination. This is a ^vritten examination which i^; 
resorted to at the close of a certain subject of a certain branch — 
for instance of Addition of Fractions, in Arithmetic — to secure thor- 
ough reviews and test the knowledge of the pupils. It is from mem- 
ory, of course, and occupies ivhatever time may he necessa^nj. 

Final Examination. This constitutes the material which usually 



16 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

and most abundantly appears at school exhibits. It is, of course, 
■written from memory, and embraces the work of the class for the 
year. Upon the standing obtained by these papers the advancement 
of the pupils is usually made to depend. It will be found more fair 
to average the standings of all preceding exercises, and then aver- 
age that (called Class Standing) , with 1\\q Examination Standing, 
and so obtain the Final Standing. Such a practice will obviate the 
unhealthy moral and physical effects of the usual Final Examina- 
tion. All these examination papers should be returned, as soon as 
they are examined and marked, and the pupils permitted to see their 
mistakes and required to correct them. Then they should be col- 
lected by the teacher and preserved for Exposition. 

CHAPTER III. 

Time Used in Preparation. 

This should be invariably noted upon every set of exercises by the 
teacher and upon every individual exercise by the pupil. It is not 
only important to the inspector of the work, but to the teacher, for 
he will then keep himself informed as to the amount of time given 
by different pupils to the preparation of their lessons and so avoid 
the two greatest sources of disorder, undertasking and overtasking 
the pupils. 

In a happily managed school, the judgment of the pupils w^ill often 
serve to correct and guide that of the teacher in reference to the 
length of a lesson. If a spirit of laziness prevails the teacher will 
be compelled to push or pull his pupils along. On the other hand, 
if a spirit of happy industry exists, and the practices here suggested 
will do more than an3i:hing else to arouse such a spirit, the teacher 
■will need to watch lest he and his pupils overtask themselves, 



INTRODUCTION. 17 



PART III. 
Sources of the Materials. 

CHAPTER I. 

Introduction. 

Two difficulties will at once present themselves to the teacher who 
is for the first time considering what materials to prepare for an Ex- 
position: Eirst, to obtain something from every subject taught. 
Second, from every grade of pupils from the youngest to the oldest. 
The succeeding chapters of tliis Part, it is thought, will not only re- 
move these difficulties, but will, by their suggestiveness, give the 
teacher a power of inventing innumerable original expedients which 
will again become the parents of other and prolific progeny. The 
iimnense variety of products which will thus be obtained from the 
pupils will be the means of a practical and excited industry in the 
school that vnll dispense mth almost every disciplinary neces- 
sity. 

There will be some four kinds of materials necessary to make up 
a complete Exposition. 

First, Written material. This will be obtained from every class 
and drill. 

Second, Industrial material ; such as apparatus made by the pupils, 
specimens of minerals gathered, plants pressed, or animals prepared, 
serving or handwork of any kind. 

Third, Oral material; as experiments performed, songs sung, and 
rhetorical exercises, all of which should be results of the regular 
school work — not special exercises prepared for this occasion. 

Eourth, Ornamental materials, such as pictures, evergreen adorn- 
ments, flags, bird-cages, pot-plants, flowers &c., &c. The pupils will 
supply and arrange these under the direction of the teacher and 
delight in doing it. 

Let us now consider, in order, the several branches taught in the 
schools, and determine in what manner the instruction in each case 
vnll be corrected and enhanced by securing from them materials 
for the Exposition. 

2 



18 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

CHAPTER II. 

Reading. 

With the teacher of abcdarians, the practice of having children pre- 
pare their little lessons by printing them (or writing, if script is 
taught at the first) on their slates, and bringing them to the class for 
the inspection of the teacher, is now almost universal. Besides 
helping to fix the whole form of the letters clearly on the mind, this 
method keeps the children occupied and their muscles busy. A 
little care on the part of the teacher will soon enable these little 
folks to accustom themselves at the first and always to prepare these 
lessons neatly and with business-like rulings, crosswise and length- 
wise of the slate. This important habit of order and neatness may 
be, should be, established at this time and in this grade. 

Now, let one of these lessons be put upon paper instead of the 
slate. Let the teacher supply the lead pencils and the paper; both 
can be easily obtained at slight expense. If vn'iting paper can not 
be supplied, there are many kinds of wrapping paper, cheap and 
abundant, which will answer the purpose. Teachers of primary 
schools who have had much experience know that it is better and 
cheaper to have on hand slate pencils and lead pencils for the chil- 
dren, and to distribute and collect them at every exercise. 

The crudeness of these exercises is nothing against them. Fre- 
quently the child will do little but perpetrate some mysterious 
scrawls, which will be but slightly more legible than the "svriting of 
many distinguished men. But when these first "cunning" efforts 
are carefully taken at the first of the term and preserved and com- 
pared with the efforts from the same pupils at the close of the term, 
the improvement thus shown and made apparent to all the parties 
interested fully repays all trouble and dissipates all doubts which 
the first performances may have caused. 

xVt first, of course, these exercises will be " Studies'''' that are pre- 
pared at the seat during the regular study period. But in a few 
months the pupils will have so advanced that they may be required 
to write from memory during the recitation period, say one stanza 
of a little poem they have read and learned from the reader. This 
will be a first effort in composition. In a small Avay, the capitals and 



READING. 19 

spelling and punctuation will be noticed. An exercise so prepared 
will be a ^^ Becitation,''^ Before the close of the first year written 
**J?emez^s" will be taken, and "Examinations," both periodic and 
final. 

The little children become very fond of these exercises, and will 
beg the teacher for them, so that many will be taken on scrap paper 
(but always neatly), which will not be preserved. The aids which 
such exercises will afford toward keeping order and maintaining 
interest will a thousand times pay for the trouble of examining and 
properly mounting the papers thus preserved. 

For more advanced grades, the variety, profit and interest in the 
exercises are infinite. Teachers will go far beyond the suggestions 
which the limits of this chapter will permit. 

It is well known that there is no better method of securing 
thorough study of a reading lesson than by having a part or a whole 
of it carefully copied by the pupil. It is a practical drill in all rhe- 
torical particulars, spelling, punctuation, capitals, paragraphing, 
etc., points which, strange to say, are too generally utterly ignored 
in the reading class, the only class in language, in rhetoric, in liter- 
ature, in most schools. The reading book is supposed to be an 
adaptation of good literature to the taste and abilities of the pupils » 
But to too many teachers the idea that the first, second, third — all 
the reading classes form the literary department of this school will 
be new. And yet, should it not be so ? Ought not every reading^ 
class, from the lowest to the highest, be a practical literary club, 
a rhetoric class, a language class ? The best writers and speakers 
have not become so by the study of the principles of rhetoric, but by- 
familiar acquaintance with good models and constant practice. The 
first thought with the teacher of every reading class should be to 
make the exercise a literary one. The correct pronunciation of 
words and inflections are comparatively unimportant ; but, indeed^ 
the very way of securing good inflections and intonations is hy tcay 
of the literary interest that may be aroused. So with all classes m 
reading above the first year, innumerable exercises may be profitably 
required. 

What better first examination of a choice selection, such as "We 
Are Seven," or "Hamlet's Soliloquy," can be made than to copy it 
neatly and correctly ? (Study.) Let it be examined carefully by the 



20 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

teacher, or by the pupils themselves, by exchanging. It is wonder- 
ful how many errors can be made by children (of older growth, 
too,) in merely copying. 

Then for a closer study, after the poem has been read, let the 
pupils be required to commit to memory a part or the whole of 
the selection, and during the recitation period write it off from 
memory. {Becitation.) Again, after it has been recited orally by 
all the pupils, and after its beauties and peculiarities have been ex- 
plained and commented upon, by teacher and pupils, let the class 
then, as a " Study,"" write their own comments upon the poem. 
This will be an easy, but very profitable, form of composition. 

Or let them come to class before the selection has been com- 
mitted to memory, and reproduce during the recitation the story of 
the selection. So innumerable exercises can be engaged in, which, 
if preserved, will show most encouraging literary development and 
improvement in the class. It is all active, creative effort on the 
part of the pupils and so in the highest degree profitable and fas- 
cinating. 

To put on record the pupils' elocutionary power, let them write 
some selections, and by suitable marks indicate the infiections, in- 
tonations, and emphasis. This would of course indicate only the 
theoretical reading. Perhaps when the phonograph has become a 
school instrument, the actual record of the vocal powers of the 
pupils will be made, and then subjected to public inspection. 
Really, though, the mastery of the piece will be adequately shown 
by these marks. This mastery should be required of all, the mere 
vocal expression can be accomplished well by few, and is com- 
paratively unimportant. 

Could a pupil go through such training in a reading class and 
present the spectacle of bad spelling and literary incompetency, 
which the pupils of many schools and colleges afford when called 
upon to express their own or any one else's thoughts in writing? 



SPELLING. 21 

CHAPTER III. 

Spelling. 

The methods in this subject have hxtely so much improved tliat 
written spelling lessons are now the rule, rather than the excep- 
tion, it being generally admitted that a pupil should acquire his 
knowledge in the same manner in which he uses his knowledge — 
a principle of wide application and infinite value in pedagogics. 
Spelling is used in writing, it should be learned by writing. Yet, 
the oral spelling should not be entirely given over. The ear is a 
gate to the soul as well, as the eye and hand. There is much good, 
too, in the " head and foot," oral spelling. But the most of the 
spelling should be by writing and usually on the slates, always 
neatly. Sometimes a "Recitation" or "Review" will be put on 
paper for preservation. Of course, the Final Examination will be 
also preserved. 

If trustees are so benighted as to require the use of a Spel- 
ling Book, then words with definitions will form an important ex- 
ercise. But spelling should really be confined to words in the 
Reader, when, since they are taken in their connections, definitions 
of the words will not be so important. 

The spelling lesson from the reader should be made to include 
capitals and punctuation. Frequently fifty or a hundred words in 
a given paragraph in the order in which they come will be dictated 
and written bj'^ the pupils in columns, so that they may be easily 
criticised. 

Again, the pupils will be required to write upon their slates all 
words of their reading lessons containing four or more letters. 
This will be frequently done on paper and exhibited to show the 
teacher's method. 

In dictating selected words for spelling, it will be well to have 
the class count off by Threes, then give the " Ones'" a certain 
word, the " Twos'' another, the " Threes" another, and so on 
with the whole lesson. — This will extend the area of the recitation 
and prevent copying, since there will always be at least two pupils 



22 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

between those spelnng the same words. Criticise by exclianging, 
letting the critic have words different from those lie spelled. After 
criticising, pass back, have the words spelled correctly, and let the 
critics be marked for errors in criticism as well as in spelling. 

The variety of methods in teaching spelling is very great and a 
specimen or specimens of all his different methods should be pre- 
served by the teacher for the Exposition. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Arithmetic. 

In the lowest grades, the first efforts to make the figures and to 
add and substract should be most seriously preserved. Neatness 
and order in the work can be secured at first more easily than later. 
Soon the "tables" will be prepared and preserved, some exer- 
cises being "Study," some "Recitation," and at last "Examina- 
tion." Written examinations should be held of all first-year pupils 
in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and spelling, and the work 
carefully preserved and subjected to public inspection. It delights 
the pupils as it does also the parents, and it makes the instruction 
pointed and thorough. 

For the more advanced pupils in arithmetic, nothing will be more 
helpful than the habitual preparation of their lessons, solutions of 
examples, statement and illustration of rules, demonstration of 
principles, etc., etc., in a neat, orderly, and business like manner. 
The degree of accurate neatness wiiich can easily be attained by 
pupils will be as pleasing and astonishing, as are the slovenly in- 
accuracies, which the slates of most arithmetic classes disclose, 
unpleasing and astounding. The thoroughness and clearness of in- 
struction are greatly enhanced by requiring pupils to put all work 
neatly and fullj^ upon their slates, and occasionally^ having it put 
upon paper and preserved. 

Of course, every character of work will be taken up, according 
to the needs of the class. Sometimes as " Recitation " one difllcult 
example may be given, and its solution put neatly on paper during 
the recitation period, and thus the actual condition of every pupil 
of the class be exposed to the teacher. 

At another time, either as a Study or Eecitation, a rule may be 



GEOGRAPHY. 23 

written, its steps numbered, and an example or examples solved, 
having, in the written solution, figures placed indicating the number 
of the step of the rule. 

Again, the tables of compound numbers will make a good exer- 
cise. 

Again, bills, notes, and drafts necessary for the full understand- 
ing of an example. 

Again, the written demonstration of same rule. (Becitation) . 

So Reviews of principles and definitions and innumerable exer- 
cises will grow out of the management of a teacher who desires to 
use every aid to make his instruction thorough and systematic. If 
the progress of the class is retarded somewhat by these mechanical 
exercises, good will be accomplished In many schools where some 
weighting down is necessary to prevent skimming, shallow work. 



CHAPTER V. 

Geography. 

In no subject will the Exposition better serve to bring about 
greatly needed improvemeiits in methods of teaching, which will 
relieve the pupil of the effects and the teacher of the necessity of 
cramming, than in Geography. 

In everj'^ grade, map-drawing is an indispensable aid to correct 
study. I underscore " aid " because there is a growing impression 
throughout the schools that map-drawing is an end rather than a 
means of teaching Geography. In many of our graded schools, the 
teachers have gone still a step further and are making some system 
of map-drawing an end rather than a means, so that all the instruc- 
tion in Geography is warped to the one purpose of teaching 
thoroughly the construction of some arbitrary system designed to 
complete some series of Geographical text-books. 

How this tendency of weak minded teachers to become the slav- 
ish victims of some good practice is to be remedied is a question 
of no small moment. The Exposition practices will serve to re- 
cover them somewhat; but, like all other methods in the hands of 
weak creatures, it will be easily pushed from its normal healthy 
use into deadening abuse. 



24 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

The map-drawing has its place, an important place, in the teach- 
ing of Geography. It should be practiced, from the lowest to the 
highest grades, and the records of pupils efforts in this direction 
should be preserved as much for the instruction of teachers as for 
the encouragement of pupils and patrons. 

Among the first maps will be : 

1. Points of Compass. 

2. School Room, 
,3. School Yard. 

4. School Yard with neighboring fields and roads or blocks and 
streets and so on. 

Proper preliminary drill (^n these subjects will enable children in 
the first year of school to gain a good knowledge of their surroun- 
dings, the power of representing their knowledge neatly by draw- 
ing; and, besides, the knowledge of many Geographical tech- 
nicalities. These efforts should first be made on the slates until 
the ideas of place and form are clear, to the teacher as well as to 
the pupil. For the teacher will need to experiment and test many 
plans before the best and neatest and most practical results are 
obtained . 

From maps of surrounding neighborhoods, the pupils will be 
lead to a map of township, county, state, neighboring states and so 
on. This course will now be more easily accomplished by the 
teacher, since publishers are furnishing special local editions of their 
Geographies which go so far as to provide teachers and pupils with 
maps of the counties at least. 

The singular fact may be noted here, that this local material is 
added to the advanced text-book instead of the primary ; that is, 
that portion of the study which should come first is placed last. 
Thus it is arranged that ideas which pupils ought most to have, 
because most useful, are i)laced so that a majority will not reach 
them, since they will not be in school long enough; while ideas, 
which are useless and inconceivable are conscientiously crammed, 
— and so deep and disagreeable an impression of the study is left 
that the pupil is entirely robbed of that native curiosity in that 
direction which would have impelled him, had he not touched the 
subject in the school, to inform himself. 

A primary course should l3e almost entirely a map-drawing ex- 



GRAMMAR. 25 

ercise. By this I do not meau the pupils should not have books. 
A book containing most of the maps to be drawn should be in the 
hands of every pupil. At first, not being able to read, they will 
study only the pictures and the maps, but these they should study 
in their weak way at regular periods. The prevailing idea that,, 
for the first few years of school, children should not be required to 
study, and that oral instruction only is possible, is a dry rot at the 
foundation of our school system which will surely endanger it 
beyond salvation if it is not totally abandoned. Children can study 
just as much as they can do anything, no more. 

At the first, these maps will be " Study." It will be well to let 
the preparation of one map extend over many lessons. The first 
effort at the map of the county, for instance, will be merely its out- 
line; then its rivers, then its mountains, then its towns and cities, 
and so on. While all this work is done on one sheet, the subjects 
of each lesson will be carefully noted on the sheet with time of pre- 
paration, standing and date. In this manner a history of the class 
proceedings will be fully kept, a record which any one would ex- 
amine with great interest. 

After the pupil is able to read, the map-drawing should be mainly 
'■'■ BeGitations" or '■'■Examinations'" and in addition there will be 
innumerable exercises, such as tabular statements of cities, rivers, 
mountains, lakes, taken variously as " Studies," " Becitations" or 
" Examinations." 

Until the results are seen, one can hardly believe the prompt, 
practical accuracy which pupils may be led to attain by these 
methods. 

Warning. Let nothing be done for Exposition, merely. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Grammar. 

Grammar is a study and practice of language. Language is for 
the expression of thought. This expression can be either oral or 
written — it should be both. Oral expression is the highest gift. 
Written expression is the more useful and practical one, and is 
the surest means to the end of oral expression. 



^6 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Efficient instruction in Grammar will therefore be a continued 
drill in written expression. If the object be language-teaching, then 
of course, a majority of the exercises will be written. If the object 
be a study of technical Grammar, the best method, it is gener- 
ally admitted, is by having the lessons written. Parsing lessons are 
best prepared by writing. The analysis of sentences must not only 
be written for thorough study, but it makes verj^ attractive material 
in its appearance. 

Outlining can be made a very useful help in teaching Grammar. 
Subjects may be investigated by outlining (Study) or Recitations 
and Reviews may be made in outline. 

There is no more effectual means of conducting a thorough review 
of a certain part of speech than by taking its divisions and sub- 
divisions in order, and making them a subject of oral discussion, 
preparatory to a written ^'/Study,''^ or ^^Becitation,''^ or ^^Examina- 
tion. ''^ 

In conducting his recitations with aview to an outline, the teacher 
will find himself benefited quite as much as his pupils. Trains of 
thought, practical distinctions, and points of association will be 
brought out, which will all tend to a deeper appreciation, wider 
mastery and firmer retention of the subject. 

As an illustration of such an exercise, an outline of the Infinitive 
Constructions is given on the following page. 

Any teacher will readily perceive how such a study is helpful to 
thoroughness of investigation and to the memorizing of the im- 
portant points of the discussion. 

It will be found that much of the regular material of the work of 
the grammar class need not be preserved, lest there be too great an 
accumulation. Yet pupils should be encouraged to retain and pre- 
serve all exercises that are not reserved for Exposition. 

The teacher should be careful to select those exercises best illus- 
trative of methods and progress, rather than those which present 
the best appearance. 



CONSTRUCTION OF INFINITIVES. 



27 



CONSTRUCTION OF INFINITIVES. 



1 1 Infinitive Constructions 
12 Con. of Noun. 
13 With Verb. 
14 Subj. of Verb. 

2 4 Obj. of Trans. Verb. 

3 4 inPred. 

16 Withlntrans Verb. 
3 5 With Passive Verb. 
3 3 In Apposition. 
1 4 With Noun. 
3 4 With Pronoun. 
3 4 With Phrase. 
3 3 With Preposition. 

2 2 Con. of Adjective. 
1 3 Limiting Noun. 

3 3 Limiting Pronoun . 
3 3 In Predicate. 

1 4 With Intrans. Verb. 

1 4 With Passive Verb. 

3 2 Con. of Adverb. 
13 Limiting Verb 

1 4 Active. 
1 5 Transitive. 
3 5 Intransitive. 
3 4 Passive. 
3 3 Limiting Adjective. 
3 3 Limiting Adverb. 



1 Is it lawful for us to give tribute, 

2 I wish him to go . 

3 To obey is to enjoy. 



4 Delightful task to rear the tender thought, &c 

[wish 

5 To escape from this existence, to die is what I 

6 What went ye out /or to see. (Obsolete.) 

7 Time to come is called future 

8 They seem to study. 

9 Our duty is to be done. 



11 To confess the truth I say I was wrong. 

12 He labored to excel. 

13 He v/^as judged to be competent. 

14 They are about to go. 

15 The object was so high as to be inaccessible. 



28 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Writing. 

Upon entering school every pupil should be required to write, on a 
sheet of paper, large enough to receive the same specimen three 
times, something as follows : 

/ awi years old, and this is the ivay I 

write and Ti%ahe the figures : 1, 2, 3, 4> 5, 6, 
7 , 8, 9, 0, upon entering school at the begin- 
ning of the year 1878. 

John Smith. 

This should he followed by a stanza or paragraph, written as well 
as possible. 

At the middle of the year, the same sentence and paragraph should 
be again written on the same sheet, changing onlj'^the clause **upon 
entering school at the beginning of the year" for "at the middle of 
the school year," or '' months after entering school." 

This specimen should be now followed by some new Tnal para- 
graph which the pupil has never before seen. 

At the close of the year, exactly the same should be written on the 
same sheet, with the few necessary changes, and the substitution of 
a new paragraph, not for the one first chosen, which should be 
written every time, but for the Trial paragraph. 

At the Exposition, this record of the pupils progress will appear 
on cine page and furnish one of the most interesting features. Care 
should be taken to put every pupil on record at the time he enters 
school, whether it be at the beginning, middle or close of the school 
year. 

The incomprehensible hyeroglyphics which some of the abcdarians 
will perpetrate in their first efforts, will be only less surprising than 
the improvement, Avhich will be manifest in their last efforts. 

It should be understood from the first that all copy books are to 
go on exhibition. 

How the preparation and exposition of such material will inspire 
the whole school in this direction will be readily discerned. 



MUSIC. 29 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Music. 

Instruction in music is becoming more and more universal and 
definite. It would hardly seem posible to put upon record the vocal 
products of this instruction. The phonograph will be adapted to 
this purpose as well as the elocutionary examinations. Since by it 
all the properties of the voice, except quality, are recorded, this 
record will soon be so magnified that the eye will be enabled to 
recognize all the peculiarities which are supposed to be confined to 
the ear. 

Still, there are many exercises of the class in music which ought 
to be taken on paper. Every tune learned, should be written from 
memory, ^^ Becitation,^^ or ^^Bevieio.'''' No exercise would better 
correct the failure of most of the teaching of the day in giving pupils 
the power of reaching music. 

So all the elements of written music, the staff, notes, marks of ex- 
pression &c., will ])e most thoroughly taught by requiring the pupils 
to put their knowledge upon paper. 

It is now the practice in most of our puplic schools, where music 
is taught, to hold written examinations upon it. 

CHAPTER IX. 
Drawing. 

This subject is best managed and most systematically developed, 
when the exposition is kept in view. 

In all cases the drawing books can be exhibited. But in connec- 
tion with the drawing books, independent efforts to draw from real 
objects, placed before the pupils, should be taken frequently. This 
will add unthought of interest and zest to the study, as well as cor- 
rect the greatest deficiency in existing methods in drawing. The 
everlasting "principles" are made so everlasting that pupils too 
frequently never get beyond them to their commonest applications, 
so that drawing, the most practical of the studies in the schools, 
suffers the fate of too many subjects — suffocation by the text and 
strangulation by the teachers. With any text, with any system, 



30 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

witli any teacher, with aiiy class, the pupil should occasionally (al- 
ways?) be required to draw real objects. These efforts should be 
preserved and the success in efforts compared. 

One of the most useful and practicable of all systems is Prof. 
Willson's, published by Harpers. The paper is all cross-lined, and 
the interstices of the lines make so many established points which 
the pupil appropriates in copying the lesson, or in inventive efforts. 
If the books can not be obtained for the school, any teacher, after 
seeing them, can obtain foolscap paper, cross-ruled, and give valu- 
able original instruction. From the first year pupils to those of 
twelfth year, beautiful original designs for wall-papers, calicoes, 
oil cloths, carpets, window curtains &c., &c., can be obtained. If 
here (and the principle is true in all departments of education) the 
teacher will only busy himself in giving the pupil a chance, in merely 
removing obstructions in the way of natural and spontaneous 
effort, results can be obtained which orthodox drawing teachers will 
sneer at as too good to be genuine. 

There is in this subject a great unknown country which it is the 
privilege of the humblest school-masters of the land to explore, and 
from which may be gathered unheard of riches and in which dis- 
coveries are to be made, which shall free our schools from the stif- 
ling influence of bad ''systems" and ignorant and bigoted pro- 
fessors. 



CHAPTER X. 

United States History. 

In no study will the Exposition methods furnish greater relief 
from the evils of bad teaching than in history. Instead of the tedious 
cramming of dates, they will substitute practices of interested in- 
vestigation, and secure an intelligent mastery of the subject. 

While the suggestions offered are applicable to all departments of 
History, their illustrations will be here confined to United States 
History, their wider applications being left to the skill of the enthusi- 
astic teacher. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 31 



Introduction. 



Generally speaking, we learn things, first, as wholes, finally, as 
composed of parts. With increased knowledge comes an increased 
familiarity with the number and variety of the parts of what we first 
knew as a whole composed of few parts. 

A child's knowledge of a dog is different from the scientist's know- 
ledge of Canis familiaris, in that the latter has familiarized himself 
more thoroughly with the parts of the whole, which to the former 
seems composed of very few parts. Yet the child's knowledge is 
good so far as it goes. It is practical ; it enables the child to recog- 
nize the dog when he sees it. So in all directions of learning, our 
first conceptions are distinguished with few marks — are wholes com- 
posed of few parts. To learn all of the parts of a tree before recog- 
nizing trees would be tedious and unnatural. We all can recognize 
trees before we study botany. The NatAiral method of learning 
begins with wholes, and passes, first, to a few parts, then to 
more parts, and so on until the sufficient number of parts are mas- 
tered. On the other hand, the Logical method, which one would 
pursue if he followed the order of statement of facts as laid down in 
any logically arranged text-book, passes from parts to wholes. Geo- 
metry, for instance, is usually taught after the logical method. Out 
of postulates, axioms, and definitions, as parts, are formed cer- 
tain wholes, which again become parts to form new wholes, and so 
on, until the science of Geometry is evolved. So with most of the 
sciences presented in text-books. The Logical method is well 
enough at certain times. I am not objecting to it absolutely; but I 
do claim that we naturally take hold of new subjects as wholes, and 
learn them by discovering their parts ; and, generally speaking, it is 
distasteful to begin with uninteresting parts, and unite them to 
make interesting wholes. The less discipline the mind has, the 
truer is this statement. 

Now, all this bears upon the proper study of history ; but, before 
I show how, let me use another illustration. Suppose, as strangers, 
we are about to visit a large citj"- — Cincinnati, for instance — with the 
purpose of learning as much about it as we can in the time at our 
command. Wliat would we best do first? Perhaps we would do 
nothing but jump on the cars and go into the city. Yet, will it not 



32 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

pay us to glance at a map first ? If we know nothing about that city, 
its locations, etc., w^e shall like to know wiiere we shall alight; where 
•the more important streets are ; how we are to go from the depot to 
reach them, etc., etc. But, wiiile these general facts are very inter- 
esting and useful, would we be so foolish as to commit to memorj-^, 
as a preparation for our first visit, the names of all the important 
streets, all the important public buildings, all the important busi- 
ness centers? Not at all. We w^ould prefer to learn them by visit- 
ing, and ^o impress their names upon our mind — that is, commit them 
to memory. 

But now we have arrived in the city. We desire to learn it thor- 
oughly. Should M'e therefore stop at the first building we come to, 
examine it critically, study its architecture, the number of rooms in 
it, the materials of which it is built, the exact dimensions of all its 
parts, etc., etc. ; then pass to the next building, and so on with each 
building on each street, and so through successive streets until we 
have mastered thoroughly every house on every street in the city ? 

Of course we would do no such thing. We haven't the time. 
'Twould occupy months, years. It would be as foolish as the too 
•common method of studying history. 

Bnt supposing M'e had time, all the time w^e need, would we pur- 
sue this course ? Would it pay us, if we did? Would it give us the 
information w^e need, or would we remember any length of time 
very much of this quantity of knowledge which we had so thor- 
oughly (.?) acquired? 

We would go at it in no such way. First we would be glad to go 
to the top of some tower, in a central part of the city, and see how 
the more important streets run, and where the prominent buildings 
stand. Having thus gained a clear idea of the points of the compass 
and the general "lay" of the city, Ave would visit a few points first, 
and fix the most important streets. If at our first visit we learn 
Third, Fourth, and Fifth streets. Walnut, Vine, and Race ; visit the 
Fountain, the public libraries, and the public institutions, we shall 
be satisfied. At succeeding visits we shall extend our examinations, 
but endeavor all the time to learn just that about which everybody 
knows something. Then, having become generally acquainted with 
the city as a whole, we can settle, if w^e choose, upon certain local- 
ities, and make them our " specialties." But, if it is not our object 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 33 

to be specialists, we shall have reason to feel that we are what aiij'' 
one would consider "well informed" with regard to Cincinnati. 
We can talk intelligently about it to others who have also visited it. 
Now, in studying Histor^y, let us adopt the same reasonable course. 
Let us avoid that false notion of thoroughness, which, in studying 
the city, would have kept us, during our first visit, in one important 
building, and left usigyioj^ant of Fourth Street and Fountain Square. 
Let us, from a bird's-eye view, map out our subject, stud3dng it first 
as a whole composed of a few prominent parts. Then take these 
parts as wholes, and study them in the same manner. But we must 
beware of the minutiae, lest they swamp us. We must be cautious, 
lest in the desire to master a multitude of details we fail to remem- 
ber any thing. We must also see to it that what we do learn shall 
be immediately available — shall make us "well informed." 



First Recitation. 

General Outline of the U. 8. History. The teacher will place upon 
the board the following Outline, omitting the Dates : 

1 1 Origination (1st Explorations to 2d Continental Congress) , . 1000—1775 

1 2 Explorations (1st Explorations to Jamestown Settlement), . 1000 — 1607 

2 2 Colonization (Jamestown Settlement to King AVilliam's War), 1607—1689 

3 2 Consolidation (King William's War to 2d Cont. Congress), . 1689—1775 

SI Formation (2d Continental Congress to Jackson), . . . 1775—1829 

1 2 Separation (2d Continental Congress to 2d Treaty of Paris), 1775—1783 

22 Organization (2d Treaty of Paris to Washington), . . . 1783—1789 

32 Federalization (Washington to Jackson), . , . . 17S9— 1829 

31 Reformation (Jackson to Garfield) , 1829—1881 

12 Agitation (Jackson to Lincoln), 1829—1861 

22 Emancipation (Lincoln to Johnson), ..... 1861—1865 

32 Reorganization (Johnson to Garfield), 1869—1881 

The pupils will copy this while the teacher is putting it on the 
board, and as soon as finished the teacher will explain in the 
following or equivalent : . 

Bemarks upon the Outline. I have given you here a "birds-e.ve 
view" of the History you propose to study. You will soon discover 
that our history is as clearly a growth as the tree standing near the 
window, and that it should be studied first as that tree would be 
studied. At first glance you see the tree is a whole, composed of a 

3 



34 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

few distinct parts, namely, roots, stem, and leaves, and by noticing 
tliese with a little care, you will easily learn enough al^out the tree 
to be able to recognize it or a similar one. 

In the same manner you may become quickly and easily familiar 
with the most important parts of our nation's history, taken as a 
whole. These few, yet important, divisions are presented in this 
outline. By fixing them clearly in your mind, you will be better in- 
formed than many who have recited from memory whole text-books 
on this subject. 

But, understand, pupils, I do not propose to make the mistake of 
asking you to commit these bare facts to memory without prelimin- 
ary research on your own part, but, on the other hand, after a few 
explanations, I shall request you investigate with the aid of your 
text-book the time over Avhich these divisions extend, and to deter- 
mine the proper date for the beginning and close of each period. 

The simplest, first analysis divides the history of the United States 
into three important eras ; namely. Origination, Formation, Re- 
formation. 

Our nation was a long time coming into being. The country was 
first discovered and explored; then settlements, or colonies^ were 
established ; finally, these colonies were consolidated into a nation. 
These three steps constitute the whole history of the origination of 
our nation, and corresponding to them we have three periods — Ex- 
plorations^ Colonization, Consolidation. 

The United States were spoken into existence when the first blood 
was shed. The nation was really born at the battle of Lexington; 
but the Second Continental Congress, which assembled in 1775, com- 
pleted its individualization by the Declaration of Independence. But 
a nation declared and a nation established are two things. Having 
affirmed and achieved independence and separation, the next process 
was to organize into an indissoluble whole the distant, jealous, and 
sovereign parts, first on paper, then in the hearts of the people. 
These several steps — namely, Separation, Organizatiop, and Feder- 
alization — make up the three periods into which the Formation 
separates itself. 

Separation was accomplished by the war of Revolution ; and not 
until the Treaty of Paris, 1783, was it a fact. Following this, was a 
period of great anxiety to our forefathers. While the war was in 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 35 

progress, the union of the colonies was necessary and inevitable ; 
but, at the moment when that pressure was removed, it was dis- 
covered that there was really no National government. The Con- 
federation organized by the Second Continental Congress was 
powerless for union. To remedy this, the Federal Constitution was 
formed, and at last adopted. Now the Organization is completed; 
but there remains the more important step of creating and estab- 
lishing this in the hearts of the people ; of creating and developing 
that national sentiment of union, which, when expressed in those 
memorable words, "The Union, now and forever: one and insepar-* 
able!" found an echo in every patriotic bosom. It took time to 
bring about that feeling which now prompts every American to sur- 
render any thing but the Union. We must remember that the colon- 
ies, proud of their individual independence, and more or less jealous 
of one another, made with some reluctance the surrender of State 
sovereignity necessary to a strong Union. And though they at last 
adopted the Federal Constitution, that instrument had to be ad- 
ministered with the utmost delicacy and caution, lest some irritated 
State should of itself break the jet feeble bonds which held it in the 
Union. In other words, the process of Federalization took time, 
required great skill and patience. But it was thoroughly accom- 
plished by the time of President Jackson, for his threatened coercion 
of South Carolina received the practical support of the whole people. 
To fix the exact time at which we became a nation, in fact as well 
as on paper, is, of course, impossible ; but I let it include the time 
from the beginning of Washington's administration to the adminis- 
tration of Jackson, 1829. 

Now, the Union being no longer a question, the nation being suf- 
ficiently consolidated to stand, whatever else might fall; and the 
States being sufficiently cemented together to withstand any wrench- 
ing, however severe, we begin the exciting era of Reformation, 
which embraces the prolonged struggle over slavery. Our fore- 
fathers, who w^ere practical men, compromised with slavery again 
and agaui ^iien attempting to unite the colonies. This was neces- 
sary. No Union could have been formed without it, and a Union 
was the first thing. Yet it is wonderful how, in these concessions 
to slavery, practices were permitted which involved the sacrifice of 
no written principles of liberty in the Constitution ; and still more 



36 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

wonderful, how these written principles at last asserted themselves, 
and have survived the practices which were so inconsistent with 
them. 

The more it is considered, the more will it appear that the great 
slavery struggle was wisely postponed until the nation attained the 
matured strength necessary to undergo the surgical operation of the 
Keformation. 

This era readily falls into the periods. Agitation, Emancipation^ 
Beorganization. During Formation the system of the body politic 
was being ''toned up," preparatory to undergoing the sickness 
of the Agitation and the surgical performance of the Emanci- 
pation. The invalid is now enjoying a hopeful convalescence of He- 
organization, which we all hope will terminate in a healthful vigor 
which shall make ours the grandest of nations. All intelligent per- 
sons, North and South, are agreed that slavery was a fearful incon- 
sistency in our national organization. Our forefathers, North and 
South, deprecated it sincerely and repeatedly. Washington and 
Jefferson, both southerners, freed their slaves. At last it threatened 
the life of the nation. It is gone. The nation survives. Whatever 
we may have suffered, all must rejoice at the result, the South more 
than the North; for now, relieved of this incubus upon her com- 
merce, her industries, her internal improvements, with the great ad- 
vantages of seaboard, climate, and fertility of soil, she must soon 
rival the North in peaceful prosperity — a rivalry which slavery alone 
made unequal. 

You thus see, scholars, that I have taken you over our whole his- 
tory as a nation. The full significance of all that I have said, you 
will not realize until by your own study and investigation you have 
corroborated my every statement. To this work I will now direct 
you. 

For your next lesson you may copy this outline neatly upon paper 
and place opposite each division and subdivision the date, which 
you must determine by studying your texts. While determining 
and affixing these dates strive to impress them upon your minds. 
This exercise will require you to go over the whole book and you 
will find, that in your first lesson you have mastered the whole of 
United States History, and that, should you never look into the 
study again, you will be familiar with its most striking features and . 



UNITED STATES HISTORY. 37 

be more intelligent concerning your nations history than many are 
who have memorized it from beginning to end. 

Second Recitation. 

This will be chiefly given to hearing reports from different-pupils 
as to dates determmed. The outline will then be again put upon 
the board with the proper dates, the pupils when necessary correct- 
ing their own papers. Every paper should be graded by the teacher, 
in this case abont ten being taken from one hundred for every wrong 
date, there having been about ten dates to be determined. 

Before dismissing the clasSj the teacher should drill the pupils in 
the divisions and their dates, encouraging them in this way to fix them 
in their minds and to give them from memory. It will be found that, 
at the close of this recitation, these periods are quite well memor- 
ized, so that at the next lesson they may prepare for a written ^^Be- 
citation^^ of the outline, that is, they will copy the outline and so 
prepare themselves to put upon paper, from memory, during the 
next recitation period, the whole outline with all the dates. 

Succeeding Recitations. 

In just the same manner treat each subdivision. Consider at first 
only its salient parts, so that in one or two weeks the class will have 
again passed over the whole history. Let the pupils frequently from 
their own investigation discover the divisions as well as their dates. 
This will train them to weigh and balance events, and so cultivate 
practical historical judgment — a power sadly defficient in many 
students (?) of history. 

These papers will all be preserved, and when placed upon ^^Expo- 
sition'''' will show the method of the teacher and the growth of the 
class in the subject. — *' 



* For complete outlines the reader is referred to a work by the writer, 
Outlines of United States History." Danville. J. L. Sherrill, Publisher. 



38 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

CHAPTER XL 

Physiology. 

The best means of studying Physiology, and indeed, all the Natural 
Sciences is by outlines, (F/^e Appendix), prepared by the pupils. 
These will in some cases be ^^ Study " work, frequently "Beviews,^'' 
and will always enter partly into '■'■Examinations.'''' Pupils will soon 
become so disciplined in the subject by outlining that oftentimes a 
recitation will pass without the teacher asking a question. The 
effort to grasp the subject for the purpose of arranging its heads in 
logical order, such as the outline requires, soon gives them such 
a mastery of the subject of a lesson that any one, when called 
upon, will take up the proper topic and discuss it fully without 
question or suggestion from the teacher, but usually with correc- 
tion and criticism from his fellow pupils. Physiology affords one 
of the best opportunities for developing outlining power. 

Besides the outlines, neat drawings of the parts of the human 
system will be frequently requested and preserved. Some of these 
^mWhQ ^^Recitations'''' and '^Examiriations,^'' but usually ^^ Study.'''' 

Teachers will be surprised to learn, how many pupils can draw 
well if opportunity is afforded them, and it will be found that good 
or bad drawing is a most efficient aid to thoroughness and defiuite- 
ness of knowledge. 

Besides drawing upon paper, the pupils should be required to 
put on the board drawings of organs to be recited upon. 

Tor the assistance of the teacher as a basis of further proceding, 
I submit the following outline. It will be found well, after the 
pupils have attempted to make a general outline of the whole sub- 
ject as their first lesson or two, for the teacher to aid them by giv- 
ing them the benefit of his wider and maturer knowledge of the 
subject in some such outline as follows. It is quite essential that 
the cast of the subject should be well made in order that no topics 
may be omitted and in order that the most important leading rela- 
tions may be clearly set forth : 



PHYSIOLOGY. * ^^ 

OiitUne of Human Body. 
11 Tissues. 
12 Definition. 
22 Parts. 

13 Cells. 23 Fibres. 33 Intercellular Substance. 

32 Kinds. 

13 Cells suspended in Liquids. 

14 Blood. 2^ Lymph. 3^ Chyle. 4^ Glandular Secretions. 
23 Cells placed on Free Surfaces. 
14 Epithelium. 
15 Definition:— The outer surface of the skin and mucous 
membranes, being always exposed to the air. 

25 Kinds. ^ ^ 

16 Tessellated. 26 Columnar. 36 Ciliated. 46 Spheroidal. 

56 Transitional. 

2^ Endothelium. 

15 Definition :— Parietal surface of membranes with free sur- 
faces, not exposed to the air. 

25 Situation. 

16 Serous membranes. 26 Inner surface of blood and 

lymph vessels, &c. 

■33 Cells imbedded in solids. 
14 Connective Tissues. 
15 Definition :— The supporting frame work and binding ma- 
terial of the textures of the body. 
25 Kinds. 
16 Neuroglia. 
26 Retiform. 
36 Gelatinous. 
46 Fibrous. 

17 Areolar. 27 Dermous. 37 Mucous. 47 Serous. 57 Fas- 
ciae. 67 Tendinous. V Ligamentous. 

24 Adipose. 
34 Pigmentary. 
44 Cartilaginous. 
5* Osseous. 
64 Muscular. 
74 Nervous. 



40 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

21 Organs. 
12 Hard. 

1^ Bones. 23 Teeth. 
22 Soft. 

13 Connecting = Gristle. 

14 Cartilage. 2* Tendon. 3^ Aponeurosis 
23 Binding and Lining = Membranes. 

14 Fascia. 2^ Serous. 3^ Mucous. . 
33 Moving = Muscles. 
43 Secreting = Glands. 
53 Transmitting. 
14 Nervous Force. 

15 Nerves. 25 Peripheral End Organs. 3^ Central End Organs. 
24 Air. 

15 Nose. 25 Pharynx. 25 Larynx. 32 Trachea. 45 Bronchial 

Tubes &c. 
34 Liquids = Vesicular. 

15 Heart. 25 Arteries. 35 Capillaries. 45 Veins. 55 Lym- 
phatics. 65 Ducts. 
44 Food= Alimentary Canal. 

15 Mouth. 25 Pharynx. 35 (Esophagus. 45 Stomach. 55 In- 
testines. 
32 Liquid. 

13 Blood. 23 Lymph. 33 Chyle. 43 Glandular Secretions. 

31 Systems. 
12 Motive. 
13 Supporting = Skeleton. 

14 Bones. 24 Cartilages. 34 Ligaments. 
. 23 Propelling = Muscles. 

14 Muscles. 24 Tendons. 34 Fascia. 

22 Nutritive. 
13 Preparing. 
14 Digestion. 

24 Absorption = Lactials and Thoracic Duct. 
34 Purification. 

15 Liver. 25 Lungs. 
23 Transporting. 

1'4 Circulation = Blood Vessels. 
24 Reabsorption = Lymphatics. 
33 Appropriating. 

14 Assimilation = Capillaries. 

24 Secretion = Mucous Membranes and Glands. 

34 Excretion. 

15 Kidneys. 25 Skin. 35 Lungs. 

32 Sensitive = Nervous System. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 41 

Bemarks on the Outline. 

The classification of tlie Tissues is mainly that of Prof. Turner, 
given in Encyclopedia Britannica. It is possible that the teacher 
will find it necessary to omit portions or all of this, for the reason 
that neither he nor his pupils may have sufficiently full texts or 
reference books to pursue the headings. 

The idea of this outline is that the class shall take three excur- 
sions over the whole subject. The first by the way of Tissues, the 
names, and examples of which should only be determined. It will 
be well to have the pupils to investigate the etymology of each term, 
if possible. The recitation upon the tissues should not be made too 
close, ^the object only being to secure a slight acquaintance with 
terms and a mere passing acquaintance with the objects. 

The second excursion will be by way of the Organs. Here again 
only names and locations should be familiarized. It is not expected 
that each organ should be studied exhaustively. The fijst two trips 
are merely preparatory trips, reconnoissances before the complete 
and exhaustive excursion by way of the Systems. 

The order of the trips may be reversed, if thought best, but with 
a strong class the order given is the best. 

CHAPTER XII. 

Natural Philosophy. 

Investigation of Subjects by Outlines. 

In order to give as particular and full an account of how this or 
any other one of the Natural Sciences may be handled with outlines, 
I will extract from National Normal, Vol. IV, No. 7, the following 
account of the proceedings of one of my classes in Natural Philoso- 
phy : 

First Becitation. I determined in the management of this class, 
to impress thoroughly upon the minds of my pupils the unity of plan 
and practice exhibited by Nature in her physical world; to co- 
ordinate in their minds the subject or subjects to be investigated 
with those they had before investigated ; to train in them a power 
of masterly investigation, logical discrimination, and so secure thor- 
ough knowledge. It was my first effort, by questioning and sug- 



42 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

gestions, to evolve the following outline, which I take from the one 
presented by J. W. Campbell : 
Existence. 
11 Matter. 

12 Considered abstractly— Mathematics. 
22 Considered concretely — Natural Sciences. 
13 Organized. 

14 Vegetable — Botany. 
24 Animal. 

15 Generally — Zoology. 
25 Particularly — Physiology. 
23 Unorganized — Physics. 

14 Considered extrinsically — Phj^sical Sciences. 
15 Geology. 

25 Natural Philosophy. 
24 Considered intrinsicall3^ 
15 Chemistry. 
21 Force. 
It was concluded that the grand theme of investigation in all scien- 
ces was Existence, This resolved itself into flatter and Force, two 
terms which, it was afterward thought, are very nearly, if not en- 
tirely, synonymous. Under these two terms must, then, be included . 
all the subjects of investigation involved in a complete course of 
study. By considering the relations of these studies to each other 
and to the subject, Matter, the above outline was evolved. 

The Next Lesson w^as anticipated by a preliminary discussion of 
Force. This led us to the conclusion that every subject of human 
investigation might be brought under this one topic, even as it 
might have been under Matter. But our purpose was to find the 
position of Natural Philosophy, or of the subjects studied in Na- 
tural Philosophy under the general theme, Force. The next lesson, 
then, was : Such an outline of Force as luould embrace the topics of 
Natural Philosophy. For this investigation, I, of course, referred 
my class tO the introductory chapters of their own different text- 
books on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, and to the numerous 
and fuller treatises upon the same subjects, to be found in the Re- 
ference Library, 
As a result of their investigations, corrected and improved by the 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 43 

discussions at the next and succeeding recitations, I take the fol- 
lowing from Mr. T. A. Gibbon's final outline : 
21 Force. 

12 Kinds. 

13 Spiritual. 
23 Vital. 
33 Physical. 
14 Kinds. 

15 Molar. 
25 Molecular. 
24 Effects. 

15 Equilibrium. 
25 Motion. 

How all the topics in Natural Philosophy would be reached by a 
logical carrying out of the above sub-heads was brought out in the 
class discussions, but left for more thorough investigation when 
those subjects came up for special study and outlining. 

Having thus taken a bird's eye view of the ground over which we 
were to travel, I thought it best to come down to more concrete, 
but just Q,ii logical and natural, considerations. We accordingly as- 
sailed the topic, Mechanical Elements. I desired them to look upon 
the subject as susceptible of logical arrangement, and, accordingly, 
to prepare such an outline of the Levers as would embrace every- 
thing, practical and theoretical, relating to them. They would find 
that their authors, in many cases had arranged their discussions in 
this light. Some of them had not. The class were to improve 
upon them. 

3Xanner of the Oral Becitations. The prepared outlines were the 
only guides during the recitations. The teacher merely presiding 
as chairman of the meeting. A pupil was first asked to introduce 
the theme for discussion. I avoided asking questions. If points 
were not reached, I stated as much, and called upon others to tell 
what they were, and to expand them, and still others to elaborate 
them. 

I frequently encouraged each one to feel that, if he had investi- 
gated the lesson in a masterly manner, he ought to feel confident 
that he could recite upon it as a whole just as well as upon some 



44 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

of its points. I could not think that the subject had been fully 
grasped if, by particular questions, I must supply each one with a 
particular theme. I, therefore, in calling upon "the next" (which 
was of course, any pupil), simply said: "Mr. Vance, please con- 
tinue the discussion." If he failed to take up the point in logical 
order, the criticism of the class very quickly apprised him of his 
mistake. He tried again, or gave place to some one who looked a 
little deeper. 

A thoughtful teacher will easily see that pupils of any class who 
can, day after day, handle their subjects in this manner, must, of 
course, discipline themselves to a rigor of thought and thorough- 
ness, and breadth of investigation which the six-page-a-day-lesson 
teaching and reciting simply ignores, or rather never dreams of. 

During the recitation I put upon the board, step by step, the out- 
line of the subject recited upon, as it was evolved by the recitation. 
Each pupil, at the same time, reconstructed his own outline upon 
this model. These partial outlines, made at different recitations, 
were preserved for the purpose of forming them into a complete 
whole, which was to represent the work of the term, and to be 
handed to the teacher at the close of the term, for examination and 
grading. Space will [not permit me to give in full any one of the 
thirty-five "handed in" at the close of the term, since most of them, 
arranged in the manner of these presented, covered more than six 
yards of paper. The mechanical skill, neatness, logical ingenuity 
and exhaustiveuess displayed in manyof them was very remarkable. 
I graded each one on the last three points. Many appropriated a 
special blank book to the purpose, and are now carefully preserving 
the result of their labors as most valuable treatises upon Natural 
Philosophy, which are to be used as loorks of reference in their 
future career as teachers. 

In order do give a general view of the work of the term, I will 
now, from these final outlines, make suitable selections. It will be 
remembered that one route to National Philosophy was through 
Matter. But we found that the topic, Force, grasped more cor- 
rectly the topics of that study, as presented in the text-books. It 
was, therefore, the theme of the term. I have given our general 
outline of it above. To show how certain topics were reached, I 
will give extracts from the final outlines, omitting the definitions. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 45 

The following, of Molar Force^ I take from Miss Mate Phillips' 
paper : 

15 Molar. 

16 Natural. 

17 Gravitation. 
18 Universal. 
19 Terms. 
110 Mass. 
210 Density. 
29 Laws. 
28 Terrestrial — Gravity. 
19 Kinds. 

110 Absolute— Weight. 
210 Relative — Specific Gravity. 
29 Center of. 
39 Laws of. 
27 Inertia. 
26 Artificial — (Force utilized by the art of man). 
V Through Solids. 
18 Mechanics. 
27 Through Liquids. 

18 At rest — Hydrostatics. 
28 In motion — Hydraulics. 
37 Through Gasses. 
18 Pneumatics. 

The following partial outline, of Molecular Force, was by Mr. 
Warren Darst : 

25 Molecular. 
16 Cohesion. 

17 Strength of the material. 

27 Elasticity. 
26 Adhesion. 

17 Capillary Attraction. 

27 Friction. 
36 Chemism — Chemical Afiinity. 
46 Polarity — Crystallization. 



46 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

The following, of Jlotion, is from Mr. J. 31. Staley's outline: 
21 12 33 21 2'^ Motion. 
16 Molar. 

17 Kinds. 

18 As to relations. 
19 Absolute. 
29 Relative. 
28 As to time. 
19 Uniform. 
29 Varied. 

110 Accelerated. 
110 Retarded. 
2? Measure of. 

18 Momentum — M ^ V. 
28 Vis Viva—M m V >^ V. 
37 Laws of. ' 

26 Molecular. 
V Sound. 
27 Heat. 
37 Light. 
47 Electricity. 

Space will not permit the presentation here of the more extended 
treatment of all of these heads. These will suffice to show how the 
different subjects were reached. That the preparation of such 
material as this will give power to the pupil, I need not urge, 
neither need I say that the examination of these outlines by those 
interested at the Exposition will be profitable. 

Investigation by Experimentation. 

One of the most interesting features at the Exposition will be the 
display and use of apparatus, most of which will have been made 
by the pupils. 

The following suggestions as to the management of experiments 
will be found useful. 

Let one recitation a week be given entirely to experiments. It 
will be found convenient to take the last period of the day, so that 
the class can, by remaining after school, be less hurried. At least a 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 47 

week before time, the teacher should prepare a "List of Experi- 
ments;" giving the name of the pupil who is to perform it; the 
name of the experiment, and references to the book or books con- 
taining an account of it. 

By consulting the text, each pupil will learn his theme and where 
he can study it. The extra moments will then be given to studying 
the principles and devising materials. Friday afternoon the teacher 
will remain with the pupils, show them what apparatus is on hand, 
and explain its use. He will then give directions how the pupil 
can himself prepare similar apparatus. The following Saturday 
will then be devoted by each pupil to his task. The study period 
of Monday will then be given to the preparation of notes for the 
lecture. At Monday's recitation, the experiments will be per- 
formed before the class and visitors (for they should be invited) 
each pupil giving in connection with the experiment, a brief lecture, 
explaining the principle or law involved and its application in the 
apparatus. After each lecture, the pupils should be questioned 
by the teacher, so that the facts and principles may be fixed in their 
minds. This review of the class on a lecture, given before them 
by a comrade, is very helpful and should never be omitted. 

Besides preparing the apparatus, performing the experiment and 
lecturing upon it, each pupil should prepare notes of his experi- 
ment, stating clearly what materials were used, how those materials 
were manipulated, and how and what the experiment illustrated. 
Accompanying this Avritten statement, there will be neat drawings 
of the apparatus, properly lettered and explained. This written 
account will prove the most valuable exercise to the pupil and will 
of course be preserved for Exposition. 

The teacher need seldom experiment or lecture himself. The 
most valuable apparatus may be safely entrusted, after proper in- 
structions, to the pupils. This statement is just as applicable to 
boys and girls as to adults. I have tried it. 

If a pupil fail to master his theme, it should be assigned again. 

AH the apparatus thus prepared should be carefully preserved by 
the teacher and exhibited and used at the Exposition, 

Teachers will find it well to use the following or equivalent: — 



48 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS 

Directions to the Pupil Lecturer. 

1. Try your apparatus several times before bringing it before the 
audience, especially when it works well the first trial. Many fail- 
ures with final success before your public effort, will be a great deal 
more helpful than repeated success. If there is any possibility of 
failure in the apparatus, you are sure to find it out when before the 
audience, unless by repeated trials, beforehand, you have learned 
how to guard against it. 

2. Have an assistant who knows what is to be done and who can 
anticipate your requests for any part of the apparatus or other as- 
sistance. 

3. Let the table, on which you are to operate, be entirely cleaned 
of unnecessary materials. 

4. Have on your table only such materials as it will be incon- 
venient to move while you are lecturing. 

5. Have your other materials on a side table near at hand. 

6. State or define the principle or property you are to illustrate. 

7. Give some account of its discovery or other interesting his- 
torical incidents, if possible. 

8. Mention familiar every day applications of the principle. 

9. Explain your experiment and apparatus from drawings on the 
board, being careful to use the letters placed on the drawing to de- 
signate. This is a very important part of your lecture, as in many 
instances the particulars of your experiment will be observable at 
only a short distance from the table. Your explanation from the 
drawing will help both the eye and the intelligence of your audience 
to comprehend what is going on when your experiment is in opera- 
tion. 

10. In arranging the materials on your table, be very careful to 
dispose them so as not to obstruct the view of your audience. 

11 . Don't keep the audience waiting while arranging and adjusting 
your apparatus. Explain all the Time. Your hearers are just as 
much interested in the adjustment of your materials and the partic- 
ulars of their manipulation as they are in the result of the experiment. 

12. Predict the results of the experiments just as you are about 
to produce them, giving your audience to understand that a little 
time, or possibly several trials, may be necessary. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 49 

13. If it takes a little time for tlie operation, prevent suspense 
of waiting by introducing explanatory or otlier suitable remarks. 

14. Wliile tlie results are beiug produced, be very careful to 
place or hold the materials where they can best be seen by the whole 
audience ,. 

15. If the experiment fail, do not be disconcerted and make re- 
marks which, though intended to conceal, but the more clearly expose 
your embarrassment. Your audience will kindly refrain frombetra} iii- 
unnecessary consciousness of the mishap. Readjust the materials 
■Sit once, at the same time explaining the mechanical reasons for the 
failure. Oftentimes a failure thus well explained will illustrate the 
prmciple better than the experiment itself. 

16. The result having been produced again, give their scientiflc 
explanation and import. Your lecture does not reach its culmination 
in the "flash or pop" of the experiment, but in the lesson to be 
drawn therefrom. 

17. Maintain throughout an earnest and dignified demeanor. 
Some of the experiments would be almost trivial, did they not illus- 
trate principles which scientists have labored years to discover. 

18. Do not indulge in supposed facetious remarks or parenthet- 
ical triflings during tlie progress of your lecture. They usually ex- 
pose or lead to embarrassment. Unless you are an expert as a wit, 
this is a very dangerous time to try to be funn3\ 

19. Courteously indicate by suitable words or bow your thanks to 
your audience for their patient attention, 

20. Carefully remove all your materials from, and clean or dry, 
the tables when you are through, so that the lecturer who follows 
5'ou will flnd it as clean as you did. 

As a result of my efforts to simplify apparatus, the following set 
for pneumatic experimentation has been devised. It is now in use 
in many schools, where equivalent, costly materials, having been 
found less convenient and effective, are set aside. 



50 



SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 



HOLBROOK PIS^EUMATIC APPARATUS. 




1 — Holbrook Air-Pump, 

Exhausts and Condenses without change of parts— 2, 2a, Piston Rod (P. Rod)— 
3, 3a. Piston Cap (P. Cap)— 1, 4a, 4b, Cylinder (Cyl.)— 5, 5a, Valve Cap (V. Cap) 
—6, 6a, 6b, Condense Orifice. (C. Or.)— 7, 7a, Exhaust Orifice (E. Or,)— 8, Exhaust 
Valve (E. Val.)— 9, Plunger (Plun.)— 9a, Leather Washer on Plunger— 10, Stop 
Cock (S. Ck.)— 10a, Washer on Stop Cock— 11, Connector (Con.) 

13--Holbrook Movable Receiver and Condensing Chamber. 

With Cap on (Rec.)— 12a, same with Cap off— 13, 13a, Rubber Washer— 14, 
Double (oriflced) Cap (D. Cap)— 15, Single (oriflced) Cap (S. Cap)— 16, Rubber Con- 
nector (R. Con.) stretched over Single Cap— 17, 17a, 17b, 17c, 17d, Magdeburg 
Hemispheres— 18, Rubber Tubing (R. Tub)— 19, Brass Plate— 20, Rubber Tube con- 
necting Plate with Stop Cock. The set is complete without the Brass Plate, 19. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 51 

The following list of experiments, with a few accompanying refer- 
ences and suggestions, will be found useful. It is the result of 
years of practical research in this direction and essays to present 
the experiments which, with the least material and expense, will best 
illustrate the important principles of Natural Philosophy. 

A full description of the materials necessarj^ and of their prepara- 
tion, adjustment and manipulation to perform the experiments, to- 
gether with simple explanations of the principles illustrated, will be 
found in the author's "Hand Book of Experiments in Natural Phi- 
losophy." 

List of Simple Experiments to be Performed by the Pupils. 

Impenetrahility . 

1. Tube and Cork. Norton p. 16, art. 20. Holbrook p. 23, ex. 
67. Place lamp chimney, closed by hand at top, over cork floating 
on water in glass jar, and push do^vn to bottom of water. 

2. Alcohol and Water. Norton, p. 16, art. 21. Alcohol poured 
gently on water in glass tube occupies more space than when shaken. 

3. Nails and Tumbler. Norton, p. 16, art. 20. Carefully drop 
small nails or pins, into tumbler, brimful of water. 

Porosity. 

4. Tlie Filter. Norton, p. 31, art. 34; Steele, p. 17, fig. 2. Brown 
paper and dirty water. 

5. Water and Sugar. Norton, p. 22, art. 35. Glass brimful of 
hot water takes sugar. 

6. Cotton and Alcohol. Norton, p. 22. Introduce cotton into 
test-tube full of alcohol. 

Divisibility. 

7. By Solution. Norton, p. 20, art. 29. Put drop of nitric acid 
on copper cent, which wash in tumbler of water. 

8. By Geometry. Norton, p. 19, fig. 3. 

Elasticity. 

9. Snaps. Norton, p. 31, art. 55. Hold steel, whale-bone, wood 
&c., strips so as to snap objects across platform. 

10. Bounders. Norton, p. 31, art. 56; Steele, p. 20, fig. 4; Coo- 
ley's " Easy Experiments " p. 20, ex. 9. Drop glass, iron, wood, 
rubber, clay, putty, &c., marbles on flat stone. 

11. Pop Gun. Norton, p. 30, art. 54. Quill or elder. 



52 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Expansibilitij . 

12. Heat and Air. Norton, p. 25, fig. 6. Apply heat to a test- 
tube, almost filled with water, inverted in a tumbler of water so as to 
incline over lamp. 

13. Bubbles in Vacuo. Holbrook, p. 16, ex. 21. 

14. Air in Vacuo. Tie thin rubber over small test-tube, put into 
a bottle. Suck at mouth of bottle. 

Ductility. 

15. Glass Drawn. Heat glass tube in alcohol lamp and pull it out 

any length. 

Cohesion. 

16. Paper Test. Cooley, p. 23, ex. 16. Paste two opposite edges 
of sheet of paper two rulers longer than width of paper. Two per- 
sons pulling, each at a roller, cannot separate the paper. 

17. Apple Halved. Cooley, p. 24, ex. 18. Cut apple in two, press 
parts together, and they cohere. 

18. Bullet Halved. Norton, p. 28, art. 48; Steele p. 49, art. 3; 
Silliman, p. 110, fig. 92. 

19. Liquid Cohesion Measured. Silliman p. Ill, fig. 92b; Cam- 
bridge Physics, p. 19, fig. 9. Suspend tin plate from arm of balance 
scales and balance. Place dish of water so that tin plate touches 
its surface. More weight can be put into weight pan. 

20. Drop of Water. Silliman, p. Ill, art. 148; Norton, p. 28, 
art. 48. 

21. Soap Bubble. Silliman, p. HI, art. 148. 

22. Oil Sphere. Norton, p. 28, art. 48; Steele, p. 49, art. 3; De- 
schanel, p. 134, art. 97c. Mix alcohol and water, drop in it a little 
oil. It forms into a globule at centre of mixture. 

23. Minimum Material and Maximum Strength. Norton, p. 23, fig. 

9. Make supporting beam, first, of flat paper; then of same paper 

rolled. 

Adhesion. 

24. Bum' Stealer. Steele, p. 49, note. Invert bottle containing 
saltwater in tumbler containing colored, fresh water. 

25. Osmose. Norton, p. 49, art. 104; Silliman, p. 194. Use fun- 
nel and membrane, or bladder and tube. Put brine inside, fresh 
water outside. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 53 

Capillary Attraction. 

26. Blotter. Norton, p. 42, art. 89. 

27. Between Lamince. Norton, pp. 39, 40, figs. 11, 12, 13; Silli- 
man, p. 149, fig. 194. Use common window panes and colored water 
in shallow platter. 

28. Capillary Tubes. Norton, p. 41, art. 86; Silliman, p. 196, 
art. 243. Make capillary tubes as described in Ex. No. 15. 

First Laio of Motion. 

29. Boiling on Level. Norton, p. 54, art. 115. Hill's Questions 
in Stewart's ''Physics," p. 138. Roll putty ball and glass marble 
over smooth table. 

30. Foucault Experiment. Norton, p. 125, fig. 90. Loomis' Astron- 
omy. 

Second Law of Motion. 

31. Bubher Gun. Norton, p. 54, art. 117. Hill's Questions, p. 
138, Propel ball from gun made of elder, in which works plunger 
worked by rubber elastics. Pull plunger back half an inch, notice 
hight of ball. Pull back twice as far, ball goes four times as high. 

32. Drop and Snap Board. Steele, p. 29, fig. 6: Rolfe and Gil- 
let, fig. 43. Instead of board attach snap spring about two feet long, 
made of thin wood to edge of table. Place in front of it three or 
four balls. Operate snap so that it merely pushes one ball off while 
it propels the others. 

33. Parallelogram of Forces. Avery pp. 37, 38, fig. 10, 11; De- 
schanel, p. 18, fig. 3. Test with several weights. 

34. Parallel Forces. Deschanel, p. 14, fig. 7. Suspend lever of 
first kind, with weight and power attached, by cord attached at ful- 
crum and running over pulley and balance. 

35. Third Laio of 3fotion. Norton, p. 59, art. 126; Hill's Ques- 
tions p. 139. Hang ten pounds to balance suspended on nail. Sus- 
pend a second balance from nail and hang to it the first balance 
with its ten pounds weight attached. 

36. Beflection of Motion. Avery, p. 44, fig. 36; Norton, p. 61, 
fig. 28. Shoot rubber ball along black board against ceiling, at any 
angles marked on black board. 



54 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Centrifugal Force. 

37. Bevolving Bottle. Norton, p. 131, fig. 94. Use globe of old 
lamp. Suspend by twisted string. 

38. Bevolving Cylinder. Norton, p. 133, fig. 96. Suspend pepper 
box by twisted string. 

39. Mastic Badius. Use "return ball." 

40. Tumbler and Hoop. Norton, p. 132, art. 260. Place tumbler 
of water in hoop and swing over head. 

41. Whirling Hoops. Norton, p. 132, art. 260, fig. 95. Make 
hoops of paste board, or tin, put on axis revolved by pulling on 
wi'apped string. 

42. ]VhirUng table. Norton, p. 131, fig. 93; Avery p. 32, fig. 7; 
Silliman p. 30, figs. 18, 19, 20. 

43. Gyroscope. Norton, p. 133; Silliman, p. 35, fig. 24, 25. Toy 
gyroscopes can be bought for twenty-five cents. 

Gravitation. 

44. Tower of Bisa Test. Silliman, p. 45, art. 71. Drop weights 
of very different size from top of house. 

45. Galileo''s Expenment. Norton, p. 107. Use twine or wire. 
Make pulley of spool. 

Equilibrium. 

46. Cork and Knives. Norton, p. 68, fig. 35; Steele, p. 57, fig. 32; 
Cambridge Physics, p. 34, fig. 22. Use potato for cork, needle and 
knives, or two forks. 

47. Mid Air Suspension. Steele, p. 57, fig. 31. 

48. Unsupported Bail. Norton, p. 69, fig. 36. 

49. Knitting Needles and Cork. Norton, p. 70, fig. 38. 

50. Double Cone. Trick, p. 47, fig. 103. 

Momentum. 

51. Non-Elastic Balls and Arc. Norton, p. 6, fig. 128; Avery, p. 
30, fig. 6 ; Silliman, p. 50, art. 112. Use lead balls of different 
weight. Lay off arc accurately. Illustrate, by various tests, that 
momentum depends upon different weights and distances (veloci- 
ties) . Also determine weight of ball, by momentum it produces. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 55 

52. Impact of Elastic Balls. Silliman, p. 14G, fig. 132 Use 
wooden instead of lead balls. 

53. Candle and Board. Silliman, p. 82. Shoot candle through 
board. 

54. Bullet and Glass. Silliman, p. 82, Use snap sling and peb])les. 

55. Vis Viva. Silliman, p. 78, art. Ill; Deschanel, pp. 52, 77. 
Shoot ball up wall with snap sling. Twice force throws ball four 
times as high. 

Pendulum. 

56. Isochronism. Silliman, p. 55, art. 82; Norton, p. 118, art. 
226, fig. 85. Swing seconds pendulum in two different arcs and let 
class time it. 

57. Time Independent of Quality or Quantity of Matenal. Norton, 
p. 118, art. 236. Swing seconds pendulums of different materials and 
weight. Let class time each one separately. 

58. Time and Length. Norton, p. 118, art. 237. Have pendu- 
lums of suitable lengths. Let class time them. 

59. Length and Time. Norton, p. 118, art. 237. Let class deter- 
mine relative lengths by counting vibrations of two pendulums. 

60. Compound Pendulum. Norton, p. 122, fig. 87. 

Levers. 

61. Simple Levers. Norton, p. 77, fig. 42 ; Deschanel, p. 14, fig. 17. 

62. Steelyards. Norton, p. 82, fig. 48. 

63. False Balance. Norton, p. 83. Demonstrate rule algebraic- 
ally and test it practically. 

64. Compound Levers. Steele, p. 72, fig. 46. Make the appara- 
tus and test with various positions of weight and power. 

Inclined Plane. 

65. Power Parallel to Plane. Steele, p. 47, fig. 54 ; Prick's Phys- 
ical Technics, pp. 61, 62; Norton, p. 92. Elevate board at differ- 
ent angles. Balance weight in little toy wagon connected with 
power by cord running over pulley at top of plane. Measure hight 
and length, and determine actual weights and prove the law. 

66. Power Parallel to Base. Steele, p. 74, fig. 54; Prick, pp. 
61, 62; Norton, p. 92. Put pulley in uprights, so that it can be 
lowered so as to make power direction parallel to base. Test with 
actual weights, as above. 



56 SCHOOL EXPOSITION'S. 

Wheel and Axle. 

67. Sini2)le Wicel and Axle. Norton, p. 8-t, art. 174. Construct 
and test with weights. Swing axle on wire pivots resting on tin 
supports. Test law of equilibrium by actual weight. 

68. Differential Wheel and Axle. Norton, p. 86, fig. 53. Make 
small one and test with actual weights. 

Hydrostatics — Transmission of Pressure. 

69. Multiple Srpiirt. Norton, p. 136, fig. 08. Elder tube, with 
holes plugged. 

70. Cartesian Divers. Holbrook, p. 24, ex. 43, 44 ; Steele, p. 105,. 
fig. 93; Norton, p. 150, fig. 114. Balance homeopathic vial in wide 
mouthed bottle. Place hand tightly over mouth and press. 

71. Double Bent Tube and Water. Cooley, p. 28, ex. 20. 

Lateral Pressure. 

72. Beaction Boat. Norton, p. 140, fig. 103. Float tube of wa- 
ter. Pull out plug near base. 

73. Barker's Mill. Norton, p. 168, fig. 127 ; Steele, p. 101 , fig. 89 ; 

Avery, p. 445. Puncture flat oj^ster can near bottom at diagonally 

opposite corners of broader side. Suspend with a string and pour 

in water. 

Upward Pressure. 

74. Floating Marble. Select Experiments, p. 83, ex. 6. With 
hand over top of glass tube, or argand lamp chimney, press it to 
bottom of jar of water over a marble little larger than mouth of 
tube. Suddenly remove hand and lift tube. The marble wall rise. 
Or use marble smaller than tube, then when the hand is removed,, 
the marble will jump up the tube. 

75. Floating Metal. Norton, p. 139, fig. 102. Pit tin disk or a 

thick piece of sole leather to end of tube or lamp chimney, holding 

it there by string passing through its centre and up the tube. 

Press down to bottom of water in jar, let go of string. Tin does 

not sink. . 

Downward Pressure. 

76. Ball and Bottle. Select experiments, p. 84, ex. 5. At neck 
of inverted bottomless bottle, or of argand lamp chimney, hold 
down a wooden ball. Fill with water. Let go ball. It remains at 
bottom. 



NATURAL rHILOSOPHY. 5T 

77. Sealed Blocks. Fit two blocks nicely together by their 
broadest surface. Load one with lead aud sink it to bottom of jar. 
Place the other upon it, holding it down close. Fill jar with Ava- 
ter, let go the block. The upper one remains on the lower one. 

Pressure on Bottom. 

78. HaldaVs Apparatus. Norton, p. 139, fig. 101. Use glass tube 
bent at right angle. Hold one arm vertical. To the horizontal arm, 
by means of rubber tubing attach smaller and larger vessels. Fill 
with water. Notice water rises to same level in vertical glass tube. 

Pressure and Hight. 

79. Hydrostatic Belloius. Norton, p. 142. Cut a strip from beef 
bladder. Tack with leather headed tacks to edges of equal boards 
which fit closely into the strip. In cutting the strip from the blad- 
der, it should be in a complete circular band, so cut that the neck 
of bladder can be used to insert tube in. 

80. Pascal Experiment. Norton, p. 142, fig. 105; Silliman, p. 
155, art. 194. Use ordinary barrel and thirty or forty feet of gas 
tubing, borrowed at hardware store. Fit tube tightly into barrel 
filled with water. Pour water in tube from top of house. If the 
pressure makes the barrel leak, it is burst. 

Specific Gravity. 

81. Hollow and Solid Cylinder. Norton, p. 148, fig. 117. Use 
tin pepper box and make cylinder of sealing wax. 

82. Floating Principle. Norton, p. 149, fig. 113; Select Experi- 
ments, p. 92, ex. 9; Cooley, p. 29, exs. 33 — 35. 

83. Floating Egg. Steele, p. 95, fig. 84. 

84. Magic Change. Select Experiments, p. 97, ex. 12. Fill vial 
with alcohol, colored, and drop, mouth, up into tumbler of water. 

85. Floating Needles. Deschanel, p. 110, art. 79, p. 136. Drop 
small needles, or oiled larger ones quietly upon water. They fioat. 

S%. Floating Power of Different Liquids. Norton, p. 149, art. 292, 
fig. 114. Use coal oil, alcohol reddened, water saturated by carbon- 
ate of potassa, tinged with litmus, and mcrcurj^ 

87. Smrit-Level. Norton, p. 146, fig. 110. 



68 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Hydrodynamics . 

88. Streams from Jets. Norton, p. 160, fig. 120. 

89. Pressure of Flowing Stream. Norton, p. 169, fig. 130. 

90. Archimedes Screw. Silliman, p. 233, art. 298. Wrap rubber 
tubing around broom stick. 

91. Helix and Ball. Select Experiments, p. 107, ex. 20. Coil 
wire and pusli it into argand lamp chimney. By turning it when at 
an angle cause a small ball to "run up" the wire to top of tube. 
This explains Archimedes Screw, Ex. 90. 

Pneumatics. Inertia of Air. 

92. Weight of Air. Holbrook, p. 34, ex. 73, 74; Norton, p. 183. 

93. Floating Paper. Holbrook, p. 34, ex. 71. Drop paper flat ; 
then pressed into a wad. 

94. Penny and Paper. Select Experiments, p. 131. 

95. Bevolving Vane. Holbrook, p. 34, ex. 12; Select Experi- 
ments, p. 130, ex. 6. Cut vane of paste board, revolve sidewise, then 
edgewise, on a pin. 

96. Weight Compared with Smoke. Put smoking cotton m re- 
ceiver. Exliaust. Smoke falls. 

Press^ire of Atmosphere. 

97. Magic Card. Holbrook, p. 24, ex. 41. 

98. Faraday''s Card. Steele, 115, note. 

99. Tumbler and Paper. Norton, p. 175, fig. 135; Holbrook, p. 
41, ex. 98. 

100. Leather Sucker. Norton, p. 176, fig. 138. 

101. Tantalus Cup. Holbrook, p. 22, ex. 36; Select Experiments, 
p. 105, ex. 18; Frick, p. 124, figs. 188, 189. 

102. Pneumatic Paradox. Norton, p. 195, fig. 160; Holbrook, p. 
23, ex. 38. Use spool. 

103. 3IagiG Bottle. Holbrook, p. 27, ex. 49. 

104. Hiero''s Fountain. Holbrook, p. 28, ex.54; Steele, p. 106, 
fig. 96; Frick, p. 127, fig. 201. 

105. Air Pump. Holbrook, ex. 1 — 5; Norton, p. 179, figs. 143, 
144, 150. 

106. Fountain by Exhaustion. Holbrook, p. 11, ex. 8, 9; Norton, 
p. 182, fig. 147. 

107. Fountain by Condensation. Holbrook, p. 12, ex. 10, 11. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 59 

108. Weight Lifters. Holbrook, pp. 13, 14, ex. 12—16 and 19; 
Steele, p. 107, fig. 100; Norton, p. 182, fig. 148. 

109. Hand Glass. Holbrook, p. 18, ex. 35; Steele, p. 107, fig. 97. 

110. Bladder Glass. Holbrook, p. 19, ex. 28; Norton, p. 181, 
fig. 145. 

111. Bubber Glass. Holbrook, p. 19, ex. 29; Norton, p. 181, 
-&g. 145. 

112. Cupping Apparatus. Holbrook, p. 18, ex. 2G, 27. 

113. Sack Distended by Exhaustion. Steele, p. 105, fig. 93; Hol- 
brook p. 16, ex. 20; Silliman, p. 203, fig. 199. Tie sheet rubber 
tightly over wide mouth bottle or test-tube. Use it instead of sack. 

114. Sack Distended by Condensation. Attach Bladder Glass to 
condense orifice of pump. 

115. Magdeburg Hemispheres. Holbrook, p. 15, ex. 18; Norton, 
p. 182, fig. 146; Steele, p. 107, fig. 8; Silliman p. 206, fig. 203. 

116. Magic Transfer. Holbrook, p. 17, ex. 22. 

117. Bolt Head. Holbrook, p. 37, ex. 83; Select Experiments, 
p. 147, fig. 46. 

118. Emptying Water Upioard. Holbrook, p. 37, ex. 84. 

119. Scientific Egg. Holbrook^ p. 37, ex. 85, 

120. Transfer of Liquids with Fountain. Holbrook, p. 37, ex. 86. 

121. Culinary Paradox in Vacuo. Norton, p. 323, fig. 267; Hol- 
brook, p. 29, ex. 55. 

Ventilation. 

Air Currents. Cooley, p. 37, ex. 56, 57. 

123. Impure Air Test. Holbrook, p. 31, ex. 61. Put candle into 
jar. It burns. Kemove it. Fill lungs. Hold the breath as long as 
possible. Exhale into jar. Introduce candle. It is extinguished. 

Useful Application of Pressure of Atmosphere. 

124. Pipette. Norton, p. 175, fig. 137. 

125. Siphon. Norton, p. 197, fig. 156. Holbrook, p. 20, ex. 23: 
Cooley, ex. 48 — 51. 

126. Acid Siphon. Norton, p. 194, fig. 158; Holbrook, p. 21, ex. 
34; Frick, p. 124, ex. 186. 

127. Siphon Fountain. Norton, p. 194, fig. 157; Holbrook, p. 22, 
ex. 35; Cooley, p. 32, ex. 40. 



60 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

128. Pneumatic Inkstand. Norton, p. 194, fig. 157; Holbrook, p. 
41, ex. 98. 

129. Atomizer. Holbrook, p. 25, ex. 45; Norton, p. 195, fig. 159; 
Steele, p. 115, fig. 114. 

130. German StudenVs Lamp. Borrow one, bring before class 
and explain. 

131. Suction Pump. Norton, p. 196, fig. 153; Steele, p. 111. 
Have pupil construct small one and exhibit it and explain its work- 
ings to the class. 

132. Force Pump. Norton, p. 192, fig. 154. Treat as above. 

8ound. 

133. Tuning Fork and Bell. Avery, p. 270, fig. 212. Sound tun- 
ing fork and let one of its prongs lie against bell. 

134. Bell and Ball. Cooley, p. 41, ex. 69. Strike bell and watch 
clapper lying upon it. 

135. Besonant Jar. Norton, p. 216, fig. 177. 

136. Jeios Harp. Illustrate reinforcement. 

137. Besonant Jar and Tuning Fork. Avery, p. 291, fig. 230. 

138. Speaking Tithe. Norton, p. 219, art. 405. Use gas tubing. 

139. Acoustic Telephone. Connect two collar boxes with string. 

140. Xylophone. Cut sticks of length so that, when struck, they 
will sound respectively the notes of the scale. Arrange and play 
some familiar air. 

141. Cyathophone. Take eight tumblers, fill with water, so that, 
when struck, they will sound notes of the scale. 

Laws of Musical Sound. 

142. Sonometer. Norton, p. 226, fig. 178. Stretch two violin 
strings across croquet box, by fastening at one end, and running 
over pulley at the other. 

143. Law of Length. Norton, p. 227, art. 421. Divide one string: 
by bridge and test by rule and ear. Illustrate all the common cords. 
Norton, p. 231, art. 425. 

144. Law of Vibrations and Stretching Weight. Norton, p. 227, 
art. 421. Put on four times the weight and sound the octave. 

145. Law of Weight. Norton, p. 227, art. 421. Use heavier string. 



NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 61 

MusicmI Instruments. 

146. Violin. Box shows reiuforcement. Tiglitening of strings 
shows kiw of stretching weight. Different strings show hiw of' 
weight. Placing fingers upon strings sliows hiw of lengtli. Divid- 
ing strings sliows "liarmonics." 

147. Common WJiistle. Norton, p. 235, art. 432. Make several of 
different lengths, showing laws of vibrations. 

148. Flute or Fife. Norton, p. 237, art. 436. Many whistles in 
one. 

149. Beed Pipes. Norton, p. 235. Make of wheaten straw. Also 
use bugle or cornet. 

Light. 

150. Camera ohscura. Norton, p. 284, fig. 232. Use spectacle 
glass and any glass. Try by throwing shawl over head as does photo- 
grapher. 

151. Thaumotrope. Norton, p. 287, fig. 234. Cut picture out of 
paper, divide in two parts crosswise, paste one part on one side of 
the card, and the other on the other side. Tie strings to card and 
make it revolve by untwisting.. The tw^o pieces will appear as one 
obiect. 

152. Concentric Circles. Make several, heavy, black, concentric 
circles, distant from one another as far as the lines are wide. Look 
at it while moving it as if wrinsing a cup. The circles will seem to 
revolve. Scientists have not explained it. 

Beflection. 

153. Total Beflection. Norton, p. 289, art. 475; Steele, p. 156, 
fig. 145. Use tumbler of water. 

154. Multiple Beflection. Norton, p. 250, fig. 194. Use two look- 
ing glasses. 

155. Kaleidoscope. Norton, p. 250, art. 461. 

Befraction. 

156. Bold and Penny. Norton, p. 257, fig. 205. 

157. Prism. Norton, p. 2G2, fig. 210. Use one of the common 
''triangular" glass ornaments. 

158. Magnifying Glass. Norton, p. 289, art. 524. 



62 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Heat. 

159. Heat by Friction. Rub button violently on board, touch it 
to a bit of phosphorus. 

160. Heat by Concussion. Pound a nail briskly and touch it to a 
bit of phosphorus. 

161. Heat by Chemical Action. Pulverize potassium chlorate and 
white sugar. Mix. Drop on it a drop of sulpliuric acid. 

162. Heat from Sun. Concentrate, by magnifying glass, sun's 
rays on match or phosphorus. 

Expansion. 

163. TJiermometer. Norton, p. 308, art. 551. Let pupil exhibit 
and explain thermometer to class. 

164. Gasses Expanded. Norton, p. 305, fig. 258. Use test-tube. 

165. Liquids Expanded. Put glass tube by cork airtight in test- 
tube. Fill with water into tube. Heat over spirit lamp. 

166. Solids Expanded. Norton, p. 307. Have timier rivet slips 
of iron and copper. 

Specific Heat. 

167. Iron and Glass. Norton, p. 313, art. 558. Heat equal pieces 
of iron and glass in boiling water. Transfer them to thin cake of 
ice. Note which melts through first. 

Latent Heat. 

168. Melting Ice. Norton, p. 317, art. 567. 

Evaporation. 

169. Culinary Paradox. Norton, p. 327, fig. 267. Use test-tube 
and cork. 

170. Freezing Mixture. Norton, p. 318, art. 567. 

Conduction. 

171. Iron a Conductor. Norton, p. 333, fig. 274. Use balls of 
wax and iron wire. 

172. Dainfs Safety Lamp. Deschanel, p. 295. Use wire gauze 
and candle flame. 

173. Belative Conduction. Norton, p. 333, fig. 274. Use iron and 
copper wires. 



CHEMISTRY. 63 

17-i, Water a Poor Conductor. Place piece of ice in bottom of 
test-tube quite full of water. Incline over lamp so as to boil water 
at top. The ice remains unaffected. 

Convection. 

175. The Process of Boiling Water. Norton, p. 336, fig. 277. Use 
large test-tube, putting in a little saw dust to show direction of cur- 
rents. 

176. Water Boiled in Paper Bag. Huston, p. 200, fig. 94. 

177. Lead Melted in a Card. Make cup of ordinary card, sus- 
pend from stick by threads. Put in few shot and hold over spirit 
lamp. 

Investigation by Draidngs. 

Beside the outlines and apparatus, correct drawings of apparatus 
and cuts from the text in use and other texts should be prepared 
by the pupil. This will prove a most efficient aid to instruction 
and complete mastery of many subjects. No exceptions should be 
made in this matter. Every pupil should, in the course of the study, 
prepare this material. Much talent and practical drafting power 
will be developed by the practice. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Chemistry. 

In Chemistry, as in Natural Philosophy, my theory is to have the 
pupils make their own apparatus, use it themselves and lecture upon 
it themselves. As much of this apparatus and many of the experi- 
ments can be utilized for Exposition purpose, I will give a brief 
account of my method of handling a class of about 60, in Chemistry. 

First Becitation. 

At the first meeting of the class, I divided it into nine sections — 
working sections. I appointed for each section as Leader some 
one who had some familiarity with the subject — or display' ed special 
aptness for the work. Section No. 1 is appointed to meet at 5 A. 
M., No. 2 at 7 A. M., No. 3 at 9 A. M., No. 4 at 10 A. M., No. 5 at 
11 A. M., No. 6 at IV2 P- M., No. 7 at 31/2 P. M., No. 8 at 41/2 P. 



^4 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

M., No. 9 at GV4 P- M. My laboratoiy is my class room. This room 
is open only to the class. We recite as a whole class at 2V2 P- M. ; 
during the other hours the sections have its sole use. 

Having formed the sections and appointed their times, I explain 
that I have prepared a list of one hundred experiments which they 
will find on the register on my table. The experiments are num- 
bered and accompanied with sufficient directions and references for 
the guidance of the pupils. 1 request each leader to record between 
this and our next meeting, the names of the members of his or her 
section in a blank book supplied for the purpose and to put after 
each one the numbers 1 to 100. 

I now place upon the board the work to be done before^ and 
reported upon at the next recitation. I may assign the same or 
different experiments to each section. While assigning the experi- 
ments, I give such directions as are necessary for the special in- 
struction of the leaders and members. 

I then lay down for the observation and practice of all the following 
General Directions. First. Each section will perform first the 
experiment, assigned to it. 

Second. It will then begin with experiment No. 1, and perform 
as many as possible, but always in the order of their numbers. 

Third. Before beginning an experiment, each pupil will study 
carefully its description in his own book, or in the book referred to 
in the list. 

Fo^irth. Having thus determined what materials are needed, and 
how they are to be treated, he will obtain from the teacher any 
materials he asks for, and any assistance needed. 

Fifth. The leader will in no case perform the experiment, but he 
must allow the pupil to try, and fail or succeed as the case may be, 
giving only such hints as are necessary for safety and economy. 

Sixth. Materials should be carefully cleaned and put away, and 
the laboratory left in neat and orderly condition. 

Seventh. Having performed an experiment, the pupil will 7'ecord 
it by noting down the following stems : 

1. Apparatus. 

2. Chemicals. 

3. Manipulation. 

4. Precautions. 

5. Theory of the Keaction. 



CHEMISTRY. 65 

After a few words of ^^encouragement to the effect that their first 
efforts will most probably be failures; that all will depend upon 
their industry and patience ; that a failure is always more instructive 
than a success ; that care should be taken not to fritter away time 
in mere trifling, &c., &c.; my hour for the first recitation is closed, 
the class is excused and section No. 7 begins its work. 

The Section at Work. 
The leader requests one-half the section to "read up" upon the 
first experiment, the other half on the second. This takes but a 
moment. He then asks of the first half, what materials are needed, 
and as they are mentioned, supplies them. He then asks what is to 
be done first. One pupil says this. He is directed to do it, and so 
on. Thus the experiment is quickly and quietly performed. The 
leader then assigns a certain portion of the *' cleaning up " to each 
pupil. The first half now become lookers on and the second half per- 
form the second experiment — and so on with as many experiments 
as the time will permit. In the same manner the other sections ac- 
complish their work. 

Second Becitation. 

All pupils come prepared with paper in which ^o record all the ex- 
periments performed by the different sections. The teacher calls 
upon some member of a section to give the first items of the first 
experiment performed in his section. So with other pupils. These 
reports are critized and corrected by both, pupils and teacher, and 
placed upon the board from which all copy them. 

The discusion of these experiments is the most practical instruc- 
tion in Chemistry, as is the laboratory practice the most practical 
study of it. Here I discover any difficulties, failures or disasters. 
Here I give additional explanations and suggestions. Here we dis- 
cuss the theory and application of the experiment, keeping in mind, 
that the experiment is nothing only as it illustrates principles and 
laws. 

Having thus discusssed and recorded the experiments performed, 
I now assign the next lesson, just as I did the first, giving new ex- 
periments or redistributing the old ones, including those not per- 
formed successfully. 

5 



66 SCHOOL, EXPOSITIONS. 

In this manner successive recitations are conducted. Such ex- 
periments, as would be suitable for Exposition, are noted. The 
records of the experiments are also preserved for Exposition. Be- 
sides this material from laboratory practice, other recitations,, 
reviews and examinations are taken and preserved. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

BOTAXY. 

Management of Outlining. 

There is perhaps no department of science in which nature more 
beautifully reveals herself as proceeding according to logical method, 
than in the vegetable world. Here the the study of her phenomena 
has discovered that she is the great systemizer. Here, therefore, 
outlining as a method of study, is especially delightful and satis- 
factory. 

The grand theme "Plants" should occupy the whole cojirse, and 
the entire study should be to dispose every important idea under 
this head. 

There will be tentative and final papers. Both should be pre- 
served, the first to.exhibit the "undress" work of the pupils, the 
second to indicate in neatness and thoroughness the "fixed up" 
results. 

On the final papers should appear in the proper place copies of 
the cuts given in the text to illustrate the different definitions. 

The facility with which the pupils v^dll draw these and the prac- 
tical instructions which their attempts to draw them will convey, 
will be exceedingly significant both to teacher and pupils. 

It is understood that these outlines are a means, not an end, to 
study and investigation. Each subject, and so each outline, will be 
completed step by step. For instance, the outline of calyx will be 
entirely completed before that on corolla is begun, and so on. 

The tentative outlines will be "Study" exercises, but, where 
special drill is required on certain terms, "Recitations" should be 
taken, and, ordinarily, the lesson will be wTitten in outline. 

Pupils properly trained upon these outlines will recite upon -any 
subject, discuss it logically and thoroughly, without a question from 



BOTANY. 67 

the teacher. This is not cramming. The teacher who makes it 
so, blunders. No effort at committing to memory need be made by 
the pupil. The investigation necessary to complete an outline on 
any given subject, the discussion of the outline in the class, and the 
final copying of the outline, will sufficiently impress all important 
facts upon the minds of pupils and entirely by a reasoning memory, 
not by a mechanical or " carrying" memory. 

The study and preparation of these outlines should begin with the 
first recitation and should always be accompanied, with the plants 
or parts of plants under discussion. 

Every technicality should be looked for in the specimens in hand 
and its absence or presence carefully determined. 

Without these accompanying objects, the peculiarities of which 
shall suggest and illustrate technicalities, the whole course is a 
cruelty and a farce. 

The practice, in many schools, of beginning the study of Botany in 
the Winter, is so utterly hollow and absurd, one is not surprised 
that enemies and even friends of the schools, are sometimes heard 
to exclaim: "The greatest fools about teaching are teachers!" 

The proper time to form the class in Botany is in September, 
when there are multitudes of simple plants, representing the strik- 
ing families, and possessing, in mature state, flower, fruit and seed, 
organs positively essential to the real analysis of any plant. 

Tlie most unsuitable time to begin the study of Botany is the 
Spring, and I wonder that it is necessary to urge such a proposition. 
Yet, in a majority of the high schools and colleges of the land. Bot- 
any is begun in the Winter, and the first analysis, if any is attempt- 
ed, is pretended to be had on spring flowers. 

Now every one knows that the spring flowers are, as a general 
thing, small, immature, and therefore lacldng the organs referred to 
in the first steps of the "keys," so that the teacher, in conducting 
a class, must really defeat the object of the analysis, by himself tel- 
ling what the pupils should by the examination of the plant deter- 
mine for themselves, or, by letting the pupils engage in the farcical, 
dishonest, and utterly profitless practice of taking the name of the 
plant and by means of index and flora, tracing it backward in order 
to trace it forward. 



68 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Furthermore, the weather is such in tlie early spring as to make 
it little less than dangerous for pupils to botanize in the fields. In 
spite of all precautionary advice, they will sit in damp places and 
chilly air, after rapid walking or running, for the purpose of exam- 
ining the new plant gathered, and so do great injury to their health. 
While in the Fall, the atmosphere and earth are warm and bad re- 
sults from exposure are much less liable to ensue. 

The following outline will aid the teacher in giving the subject 
such a cast as will provide for the logical mastery of its important 

features : 

Outline of Plant. 
1^ Definition. 
2^ Parts. 
12 Cells. 

22 Tissues. 
32 Organs. 
13 Reproductive. — Maintaining the Species. 
14 Flower. ' 
15 Definition. 
25 Parts. 

16 Non-essential. 

17 Torus. 27 Calyx. 37 Corolla. 
26 Essential. 

17 Stamens. 27 Pistils. 37 Ovules. 
35 Kinds. 
45 Inflorescence. 
24 Fruit. • 

34 Seed. 
23 Productive. — Maintaining the Individual. 
14 Root. 24 Stem. 34 Leaves. 
31 Kinds. 

12 As to Duration. 

22 As to Habit. 
32 As to Habitat. 
42 As to Organs. 
13 Phaenogamous. 

14 Exogenous. 24 Endogenous. 
23 Crjrptogamous. 

14 Acrogenous. 24 Thallogenous. 



BOTANY. 69 

41 Growth. 
12 Germination. 

13 Organ. 23 Process. 33 Products. 
22 Extension. 
13 Organs. 

1^ Root. 24 Bud. 34 Stem. 4^ Leaf. 
23 Processes. 
14 Absorption. 
24 Circulation. 

15 Accumulation. 25 Elaboration. 35 Appropriation. 
34 Assimilation. 
33 Products. 

51 Propagation. 
12 Natural. 
13 By Flower. 

14 Fertilization. 24 Fructification. 34 Deposition. 
23 By Stem. 
33 By Root. 
22 Artificial. 
61 Determination. 
12 Examination and Record. 
13 Order. (See page 70.) 
23 Purpose of: To prepare for analysis. 
22 Analysis. (Use Key.) 

32 Record completed. (See Record Book p. 71.) 
71 Preservation. 

12 Pressing. 22 Mounting. 
81 Utilization : Economic Botany. 

Determining Plants. 

Let it not be supposed, because I have discussed outlining first 
and separate from the practical determining of plants, that these two 
forms of class work should be carried on separately, or that outlin- 
ing should be made the most important. 

On the other hand, the important work of the Botany class is the 
analysis of unknown plants, for the purpose of learning their names 
and peculiarities. 



70 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

This should begin with tlie first recitation, in connection with 
outlining, and continue through the whole course. It should pro- 
ceed according to a fixed routine, made up of three stages : (1) Ex- 
amination and Record. (2) Analysis and Record. (3) Record com- 
pleted. 

(1) Examination and Becord. The plant to be determined being 
in hand, it should be carefully examined in a regular order (See 
Outline, below), all its peculiarities noticed, and as many of them 
noted at once in the proper place in the record ])ook as the pupil 
can command terms to express, while those marks, for which he 
does not know the proper technicality, may be kept in mind until, 
while analyzing, it is found in the text, when it should be promptly 
noted down. 

A regular order in this examination should be insisted upon. It 
is the only means whereb}^ the pupil can be aided to form the hahit 
of examining systematically and consequently with thoroughness. 

I have found it best to begin at the bottom of the plant and take 
everything just as it comes in passing up to the flower. This gives 
the pupil the thread of ''position" to follow, and insures pretty 
rigid work. 

The following, I have adopted as the best : 

Order of Examination of Plants. 

II Habitat. Notice where it is found and in what surroundings; its 

general appearance as it stands where nature placed it. Put 
notes under " Specific Marks" in record book. 

21 Root. 

12 Axial. 22 Inaxial. 

31 Stem. 

12 Caulescent or Acaulescent. 
13 Hight. 

23 Exogenous or Endogenous. 
33 Texture. 
43 Surface. 

53 Erect or otherwise. 
63 Simple or Divided. 



BOTANY. 71 

41 Leaves. 

12 Opposite or Alternate. 
22 Stipulate or Exstipulate. 
32 Petiolate or Sessile. 

13 Length. 23 Other peculiarities. 
42 Venation. 
52 General Form. 
>62 Eorm of Base and Apex. 
72 Form of Margin. 
82 Surface and Texture. 
92 Difference in Lower and Upper. 
102 Length and Breadth. 
51 Inflorescence. 

12 Arrangement. 

22 Pedunculate or Sessile. 

13 Length. 23 Other peculiarities. 
32 Bracts, Involucres, &c. 
61 Fruit. 
71 Flower. (For points, see Record Book) . 

12 Calyx. 22 Corolla. 32 Stamens. 42 Pistils. 
The examination being carefully completed, then, and not till then, 
should begin the next step. 

(2) . The Analysis and Becord. This is, of course, done with the 
■" Key," and will proceed easily if the examination has been pa- 
tiently made. 

The first analysis being undertaken when the pupil is entirely un- 
familiar with the technicalities, and being made for the purpose of 
enabling him to become practicall}'' familiar with the technicalities 
by studjiug their definition in the text and examplification in the 
plant at one and the same time, must proceed quite slowly. It may 
take four or five recitations before the species of the plant is reached. 
But, one analysis being thus patieaitly accomplished, the others will 
be comparatively easy. 

During the analysis, when any technicality descriptive of any mark 

observed or unobser\'ed during the examination, for which the proper 

term could not be then commanded, is recognized, it should be 

placed on the record as soon as found. 

This exercise should often be required as a *' Study," instead 



72 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

of an oral recitation. The steps sliould be written in form of out- 
line, the co-ordinate used being -svritten in full, the other co-ordinates 
being indicated only by indices. In each co-ordinate or heading,, 
those portions particularly true of the plant should be underscored. 

These written "Studies" will correctly indicate the actual work 
of the pupil and will be easily and quickly examined and graded at 
the recitation. 

This may be done by exchanging papers ; haA^ ing different pupils 
read successive portions ; putting at the margin of the paper a plus 
mark for every error discovered by class and teacher as reading pro- 
ceeds. When the examination of the papers is completed, the teacher 
calls for the largest number of errors; from these he determines a 
fair scale of grading; tells the critics how many to mark off from 
a hundred for each error; the pupils at once grade the papers; the 
teacher calls the rol^ and records each grade ; the papers are then 
returned. 

(3) . Completing the Becord. Having now analyzed the plant, the 
record can be corrected and completed. During the examination 
many terms will have been used that are either incorrect or unnec- 
essary. The analysis will develop the correct and important ones. 
These should now be substituted, by scratching out or erasing if 
necessary. 

But the important feature of completing the record is selecting" 
the specific and family marks. For these, the book will be relied 
upon mainly ; but the pupils will soon begin to discriminate as to 
the importance and character of different peculiarities as marking 
the species or family. 

Only a little practical faith and work in this direction are needed 
to show the teacher how soon and how well pupils will leaim the 
families and species of plants. 

Mounting the Plants. 
It should be the understanding that when a plant is gathere.d for 
analysis, there should be, at the same time, a suitable specimen care- 
fully put in the press for drying and mounting. It should also be 
understood that every plant anal3^zed is to be mounted. 'Let there 
be no exception. The point and scientific character of the study 
are lost otherwise. Nothing helps so much to give the whole work 



BOTANY. 73- 

practical interest to the pupils. Nothing will so surely fix on the 
pupils a purpose to continue the study of plants for a lifetime. 
Nothing will so conclusively demonstrate to the patrons of the 
school, the friends of the pupils, and those interested in science, 
the practical character of the class work. 

In many schools, bound books are used, on the leaves of which 
the plants, after having been pressed and dried, are pasted. This 
is child's play. The plants should be in such form that they can be 
handled, classified, shipped, &c. 

I have devised for this purpose, '■^Herbarium Sheets'" which I 
have found very useful. Suitable headings and blank forms for 
record are on the first page of the sheet. The plant is neatly strap- 
ped to the third page of the sheet with strips of paiper, or better 
sowed upon the sheet. At the time the plant is mounted the blank 
record form is filled out from the notes taken during analysis and 
preserved in the record book. Thus the pupil's knowledge appears 
on exhibition with the plant itself. 

I consider my "Field Record Book" and " Herbarium Sheets"* 
indispensable aids to the practical study of plants. 

Exposition Material. 

The outlines and herbarium sheets make a very interesting and 
beautiful feature of the Exposition. The outlines are mounted as- 
are all the other written exercises. The herbarium sheets, though, 
Will make the most attractive display if sewed to tape and hung 
around the walls of the room. The tape should be sewed only to 
the leaf of the herbarium sheet holding the plant ; the other leaf 
should fly loosely, so that the record on the first page may be ex- 
amined, or the plant on the third page. 

The following is the blank record w^hich I have found best adapted 
to my classes. It is based upon Prof. Henslow's forms, and is in- 
tended to display the striking family marks together. It will be no- 
ticed also that the last items require a summary of the specific and 
family marks, thus letting the important characteristics form the 
last impression of the plant. 

* Published by J. E. Sherrill & Co., Indianapolis, Ind. 



7i 



SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 



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o 

M 

H 
< 

P 



P5 





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CB 


1-5 fcl 




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P5 ^ 


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en 



BOTANY. 



The following is the first page of the "Herbarium Sheet," re- 
duced from foolscap or from larger sizes, if desired. The blank 
form is omitted. It is of the same size and character as that given 
on preceding page. 



No 

Herhanum of the Flora in the Begion of 

(At this place should be the form given on preceding page.) 

Collected by 

Bate 

(Copyright by 11. H. Holbrook.) 

Published by J. E. Sherrill, Indianapolis, Ind. 

With these aids and suggestions a teacher Mill be enabled to 
arouse in his neighborhood a practical interest in the flora and 
begin the accumulation of materials which are always valuable to 
science. 

It must be understood that while the stud}^ of the " Botany " may 
occupy but one term, the collection and preser\''ation of plants 
should proceed through the ivhole year. 

There will be no question that pupils so trained will continue 
their Botanical work after leaving their school. 

The following are a few items concerning the Botanical display at 
my last Exposition (1880). 

Pupils in class 58 

Herbariums of mounted specimens 58 

No. of specimens in largest herbarium 173 

No. of specimens in smallest herbarium .... 20 

Weeks of regular class work 10 

Total specimens mounted 2580 

The exposition was given in a large public hall, the walls of which 
were completely covered to the tops of the high windows with her- 
barium sheets. 



7o SCHOOL EXrOSITIONS. 

CHAPTER XV 

Geology. 

Cabinets. Natural Science, iu any of its departments, is exceed- 
ingly interesting, when it is made a study of things, — things in the 
hands of the pupils; things which they have gathered or made 
themselves. In Chemistry, the pupils must do their oum experiment- 
ing. This may necessitate simple experiments and cheap apparatus, 
but that is just what is needed. Pupils in these subjects are not 
scientists, they are not professors; they are beginners, and the be- 
ginning must be made, where scientists themselves began, — with 
the things. Teachers are so anxious about the principles, the grand 
pnnciples, the eternal principles ! Nature does not teach principles 
first. She gives us the facts. It is our privilege to study them and 
if they become sufficiently familiar, the principles will be revealed. 

So in Natural Philosophy, as I have described in Chapter XII, ap- 
paratus made by the pupils, handled by the pupils, explained by the 
pupils, will instil more principles than all the lecturing professors 
in the world could elucidate. 

So in Botanj^ the collection of the plants, the study of the plants, 
the mounting, naming and preserving of the plants, will give prin- 
ciples not only a name but a familiar habitation in every mind. 

Now we reach Geology. The text-books on this subject are usu- 
ally very interesting reading, and a class may recite page after page, 
week after week, with some interest, but the teacher wiio will con- 
duct a class through the subject, by merely having them recite the 
text, is criminally ignorant of his duty, or criminally negligent in its 
performance. 

Pupils do not come to school to read charming books; they are 
there to learn facts, to learn how to investigate facts. The "Story 
of the Earth," though fascinating us told by Dana, is infinitely more 
entrancing as told by Nature. Prof. Dana has talked familiarly 
with Nature. No wonder he is entertaining. Let the pupils have 
the story at first hand. They will be entertained and entertaining. 

I insist upon it, that if pupils do not gather from the fields their 
own cabinets, the Geology they learn is useless, and its study is a 
waste of time, which could have been more profitably put upon 



GEOLOGY. 77 

some other subject. I believe this to be true, even if there is a 
school cabinet to which they realhj have access. 

The first and last consideration, in the Geology class, is the min- 
erals and fossils actually collected by the pupils. 

To manage this properly, time must he taken; progress through the 
book must be delayed; indeed, portions of the book will have to be 
entirely omitted. All this is a great bug-bear to the quiet, orderly, 
*' thorough," easj^'-going, dignified teacher, who scrupulously de- 
votes the stipulated six hours and no more to his work ; who, when he 
locks the school house door at night, locks "school" out of his mind 
and heart until he opens up the next morning. To teach Geology, 
the teacher must go into the fields with his pupils; he must ex- 
amine carefully quantities of "truck;" he must direct the labeling 
and mounting of the specimens ; he must examine and record the 
work of each individual pupil, and give them suitable credit there- 
for; he must encourage the feeblest attempts of lagging pupils. 

If the teacher is unwilling or incompetent to do all this, then he 
should not butcher and befowl, and make hideous that which, but 
for him, would be full of life, sweetness and beauty — he should not 
brutally pretend to teach Geology. The same is. quite as true of 
any of the other Natural Sciences. 

The usual texts in Geology mention the common rocks and fossils 
which may be found in most neighljorhoods ; some in situ, some as 
drift, some as material brought into the vicinity for economic pur- 
poses. Let the teacher investigate his surroundings, and direct the 
study of the text and the field work with reference to these most 
common and accessible materials. He should then so arrange that 
the collection, mounting and inspection of these specimens may be 
attended to by him and by the pupils as regular class work. As far 
as possible, school time must be taken, and taken regularly. 

To illustrate : 

Suppose that Limestone, Sandstone and Quartz, are the first three 
minerals to be gathered. Suitable specimens of these, collected by 
the teacher, and mounted just as he wishes the pupils to mount 
them, are placed in the school room where the pupils can examine 
them closely. 

At the recitation preceding the excursion, the teacher hears a les- 
son on these rocks, and applies it to the specimens on hand. He 



78 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

fiirtliermore directs the pupils wliere tliey can be foimcl, and gives 
particular instructions as to how they shall be gathered. The col- 
lection of these specimens is the next lesson. Each pupil is to bring 
to the next recitation a good specimen of each mineral assigned. 

It may or may not be necessary for the teacher to accompany the 
pupils on this excursion. He may be able to give directions, suf- 
ficient without his presence. 

Still, if the teacher accompany the pupils on this excursion, he 
will probably run across suitable material for the next excursion; 
thus be able to enjoy the air with his pupils, and at the same time 
prepare himself for his next lesson. 

Some of the happiest recollections, for all teachers, must be of 
these out-door frolics in search of plants, and minerals and fossils. 
Need I suggest that on these occasions, the teacher should unbend 
from the rigidity of his oflice. Need I whisper, that he should not 
unbend too much ? Better too much, than too little, though. 

At the next recitation, these specimens are presented for inspec- 
tion. The teacher should not hesitate to take the time to examine 
the collection of each pupil, asking questions as he passes along, 
sometimes of the class, sometimes of the pupil. This questioning, 
while examining, will be quite necessary after the collections have 
Increased, in order to review the earlier ones. At this recitation, hav- 
ing "passed upon" all the specimens, the teacher gives explicit di- 
rections as to mounting and recording specimens. 

Mounting and Becording. The simplest and least expensive method 
of mounting a cabinet is to write the number of each specimen on 
a "speck" of paper, paste it on the specimen, then in a little blank 
book, or sheet of paper, devoted to this purpose, write the number 
and, opposite it, the name, locality, &c. This record will constitute 
the " Catalogue." Every pupil should be expected to keep his own 
catalogue, and to present it with his new specimens, for the inspec- 
tion of the teacher. 

If the pupils wish to get little boxes, such as jewelers keep, and 
put their specimens in them, it will add much to the appearance of 
the cabinet. If this is done, the number should be pasted on the 
specimen and on the box ; but on the lid should be placed the num- 
ber and the name. This will enable persons handling the specimens 



GEOLOGY. 7(> 

to replace them in the box to which tliey belong, and will keep each 
lid on its proper box. A catalogue should also be kept in connec- 
tion with the boxes. It will serve many important uses. 

Let it be understood that the boxes are not essential. Many pu- 
pils will not be able or care to incur that expense. But every pupil 
should number and keep a neat, correct catalogue of his specimens, 
while they are collected, not after they are all collected. A cata- 
logue that is going to be made never is made. 

The directions for mounting and recording here given, the teacher 
will give as the next lesson; first, to mount and record the speci- 
mens brought in and passed upon at this recitation ; second, three 
new specimens to be collected. At the next recitation, the pupil 
will bring to class the three new specimens collected, and the three 
specimens mounted and recorded with their catalogues. 

At succeeding recitations, the pupils will regularly bring the new 
specimens collected and the new specimens recorded. 

The cabinets thus accumulated, should be kept at home, excepting 
when the teacher thinks a review of the whole collection, as far as 
made, would be beneficial, when the pupils will bring all their ma- 
terial, and, after school, spread it upon the desks where the teacher 
can inspect. At these reviews, the pupils should pass around and 
examine one another's cabinets, compare, exchange, &c., &c. 

It will be found best to have the same numbers on each catalogue 
indicate the same specimen, so far as the neighborhood material 
goes. A cabinet of twenty-five minerals and as many fossils, prop- 
erly labeled and catalogued, w^ould be a good work. 

In addition to the neighborhood specimens, there will be many 
from distant and foreign localities which will be obtained by ex- 
change and as gifts, or as purchases. It is wonderful what pupils 
can rake and scrape together, when interest is once aroused in these 
matters. 

It will be seen that these cabinets will form a most interesting 
and instructive feature of the Exposition. They should be displayed 
on tables placed in charge of owners of the cabinets, or their repre- 
sentatives. The specimens should be spread out in neat order, hav- 
ing beside them the catalogue, so that visitors may find the name 
of any specimen. If boxes are used, they should be uncovered, and 
their covers placed next to them, so as to show the names. 



80 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Sucli a display "vvill popularize science, and will frequently con- 
tribute to it new materials and new facts. 

For the interest and encouragement of teachers, I will give a few 
items of the geological specimens exhibited by the members of my 
last class (1880) in Geology, at my last Exposition : 

Number in class, 69 

Weeks given to class work, ........ 6 

Cabinets of more than 500 specimens, 1 

Cabinets of less than 500, and more than 200, . . 8 
" " " 200, " '• 150, . . 10 

" '' " 150, " '' 100, . . 23 

" " " 100, " " 50, . . 25 

" " "50, 

Total number of cabinets, G7 

The two cabinets less than this number of the pupils was owing 
to the fact that two gentlemen with their wives, who were members 
of this class, collected only two cabinets. 

The largest cabinet was collected by Mr. W. E. Harbison, of 
Spencerville, O. It numbered G50 mounted species. He had many 
other species w^hich he did not present, because not properly 
mounted. Many of the pupils exchanged fossils collected here 
wath parties in different portions of the United States. 

While but six weeks were given to my regular class work, I should 
mention that I gave one regular period once a week, through some 
twenty weeks, to the collection and inspection of specimens, before 
the regular class was formed. It will readily be seen that pupils 
who had been in the field so much before beginning the study of the 
text, were w^ell and practically prepared to enjoy the text when they 
undertook it. 

I should say further that the pupils who collected the largest 
cabinets w^ere the ones who stood among the highest in the other 
studies, and who had the full quota of other duties. 

It should be the pleasure and the business of every teacher thus 
to ''work up" in his locality, a permanent interest in scientific 
collections and investigations. 

Nothing is more needed for the further progress in general science 
than just such local cabinets and local associations as such teaching 
as here suggested, would tend to establish and perpetuate. 



ZOOLOGY. 81 

To many teachers the above directions will be utterly impractic- 
able because they do not themselves know enough about the com- 
mon rocks to conduct such work, although they may be graduates 
of colleges and universities, of which splendid museums was the 
proutl boast. It is a standing reproach upon many ot our higher 
institutions that their pupils go out in such condition. 

The practical knowledge necessary to carry out the above sug- 
gestions with good success, can be easily obtained in eight or ten 
weeks, if the subject is properly taught ; yet many schools spend 
much more time in teaching Geology in such a manner as to leave 
the pupils unable to recognize quartz if they should see it in the 
iield. 

Schools and armies continually shoot too high. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



Zoology. 

The system-loving character of Nature is here again most beauti" 
fully exemplified. The animal kingdom can neither be presented 
nor comprehended without the aid of classification. 

Nothing will more relieve the study of the new and difficult terms, 
than the exercise of transferring them, with their et5"mology, defini- 
tion, example and subdivisions on the slate, and then on paper. 
Thus will their spelling and most important significations be se- 
cured. 

With much of the subject, the mastery gained by such a study 
will be sufficient. 

As soon as the general outline of the animal kingdom is suffi- 
ciently familiarized, the efforts of the pupils should be given to 
some particular division, for which the locality is most favorable. 

There is no greater sham than to keep pupils reading page after 
page of the ordinary Zoolog3^ The information supposed to he 
gained is not of the slightest real interest or pratical importance. 

No scientific specialist pretends to be able to recite what teachers 
compel pupils to recite under the pretence of scientific instruction. 

6 



82 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Supposing that pupils could give years to the subject, it would be 
unwise to scatter over so much territorj^, but when it is remem- 
bered that but a few months is allotted to the study, and, in many 
instances, the instruction is by lectures, the least effective of all 
methods, it is little less than dishonest waste of time to require 
young people to memorize and recite the strange mixture of fiction, 
scientific guesses, and undigestible facts that make up the ordinary 
text-book on Zoology. 

Svich a summary of the whole animal kingdom as will leave a de- 
cided impression of its general outlines, should be immediately fol- 
lowed, in most localities, by the collection and mounting and study 
of insects. This would convey some definite knowledge, cultivate 
real habits of research and power of observation, but, better still, 
it would serve a very useful purpose to agriculture in a direction 
where comparatively little is known and the call for further light is 
exceedingly urgent. 

I shall not attempt to give particular directions for this collection 
and preservation of insects, but shall be content to say that if the 
humblest country school teacher would put himself in possession of 
one of the many works on entomology, he could, without the aid of 
a teacher, soon prepare himself to lead his pupils on regular excur- 
sions for bugs, teach them their names and habits, and soon form 
an entomological cabinet that would be exceedingly interesting and 
instructive to the whole neighborhood. 

Such a collection would form a most attractive feature of the Ex- 
position. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



Algebra. 

So much mformation is given by our teaching and so little exf orm- 
ation! It is perpetual ingoing, while outcoming is the exception. 
What a pupil knows is unimportant. What he can tell, of his 
knowledge, is essential. In -many Algebra, as well as Arithmetic 
Classes, the simple solution of the successive examples, as a mere 
process of imitation, is the outside limit of the instruction. 



ALGEBRA. 83 

I look upon Algebra as pre-eminently a Rhetorical study. It is 
here that thought is put in exact phraseology. It is here that the 
argument upon a proposition is exactly stated, vigorously evolved, 
and undisputably conducted. It is here that language is precise, 
logic is clearly defined, and the processes of thought are practically 
"materialized." And although so many examples may not be 
solved, it is of the first importance that the teacher give his pupils 
power to think thinking, to discover in themselves a new conscious- 
ness of mental processes. He should train them to expose to their 
own view and to his inspection written evidence of the workings of 
their own minds. It was a grand conclusion Des Cartes reached: 
''I think, therefore I am." It was the foundation of faith. Slightly 
modified it becomes the very foundation of all certain knowledge : 
''I know how I think, therefore I think right." 

This will be partially secured by having the pupils write out their 
examples in a strictly logical form. The following outline will be 
found useful for this purpose. 

Outline of Solution of Example. 

11 Statement=Conditions. 

12 Granted. 22 Required. 
21 Operation. 

12 Synthesis =Forming the equation. 

22 Analysis= Solving the equation. 

32 Proof = Verifying the equation. 
31 Conclusion. 

12 Granted. 22 Obtained. 

I will present for illustration the following outline of the solution 
of Ex. 7, p. 95, Schuyler's Algebra: 

11 Statement=Conditions. 
12 Granted. 
13 (1) A left town at rate of 4 miles an hour. 
23 (2) B left 12 hours later at 10 miles an hour. 
22 Required. 
13 (3) Number of hours till B overtook A 
21 Operation. 

12 Synthesis =Forming the equation. 



84 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

13 (4) a;= hours B traveled. by (2). 

23 (5) x+12=hours A traveled. by (1)&(2). 

33 (6) 10x-= miles B traveled. by (2) . 

43 (7) 4 (x4-12) =miles A traveled, by (1). 

53 (8) 10x=4 (x4-12) by (2)&(3). 

22 Anal3^sis=Solvmg the equation. 

13 Clearing (8) of parenthesis, (9)10a;=4x+48, by Post. 3. 

23 Transposing, (10) 10a;— 4i5=48, by Art. 129. 

33 Reducing, (11) 6x=48, by Art. 132. 

43 Div. by Co-eff., (12) x=S, by Art. 135. 
32 Proof=Verification of equation. 

13 Sub in (9) = (13) 10.8=4.8+48. 

23 Reducing. (14) 80=80, by Ax. 9. 
31 Conclusion. 
12 Granted. 

13 A left town at 4 miles an hour. 

23 B left 12 hours later at 10 miles an hour. 
22 Obtained. 

13 The number of hours till B overtook A is 8. 

Such forms are easily acquired, and, though at first they may ap- 
parently retard progress somewhat, it will be invariably found that, 
at the last, the advance will be much more speedy and the whole 
work more thoroughly done. 

One or two examples of each lesson, prepared in this way, should 
be brought in, sometimes on paper, usually on the slates at each 
lesson. The whole work can be quickly examined, graded, and rec- 
ords of the grade taken, as described in Chap. , p. — . These 

exercises may be "study," "recitation," "review" or "examina- 
tion." 

I submit it to the judgment of teachers, if preparing examples 
and exercises in such orderly form, would not serve to improve the 
slovenly, scrawling work that is more the rule than the exception 
in our schools? 



GEOMETRY, 85 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Geometry. 

What has been said of Algebra as a Rhetorical study is just as 
true of Geometry. Pupils, in beginning this subject, are frequently 
in great bewilderment, owing to their failure to appreciate the new 
technicalities and the logical limitations which the exact demands 
of the study place upon their reasoning. Although definitions, 
postulates and axioms may be faithfully recited, although the de- 
monstrations of the theorems may be conscientiously parroted off, 
yet, the beautiful, clean, clear-cut connections and relations are 
utterly incomprehensible, and the pupil is as likely to consider the 
demonstrandum the hypothesis, and to know as little about where 
he is to conclude as about where he is to begin. 

I have found it to be a certain cure or prevention of this, to pre- 
sent to the class and have them copy the following 

Outline of the Demonstration of a Theorem. 
11 Statement. 
12 General=The theorem. 
13 Hypothesis=Things granted. 
23 Demonstrandum=Things to be proved. 
22 Special= Diagram dra\^^l and explained. 
13 Hypothesis=Lines, &c., granted. 
23 Demonstrandum= Things to be proved. 
21 Proof. 

12 Construction=Explanation of lines added to aid in the proof. 
2^ Argument. 

13 First Step= State and give authority. 
23 Second Step " '' '' " 
33 Third Step " '' '' <' So on to 
43 Last Step, which should always be preceded by "Therefore'* 
or its sign, and followed by the symbols *'Q. E. D." 
31 Conclusion. 
12 Special. 

13 Hypothesis. 23 Demonstrandum. 
12 General. 
13 Hypothesis. 23 Demonstrandum. 



8G SCHOOL EXPOSITIOXS. 

At tlie same recitation, and immediate 1}^ following this, I have 
them turn to a theorem, and b}- questions enal)le them to direct me 
in placing upon the board a complete outline of the theorem, just 
as I expect them to do in preparing the lesson, A sufficient model 
of tills will be found in the following: 

Outline of Demonstration of Prop. IX, Loomis'' Geometry.^ p. 24. 

11 Statement. 
12 General. 

13 Hypothesis: — If from a point within a triangle two straight 

lines are drawn to the extremities of either side ; 
23 Demonstrandum : — Their sum will be less than the sum of the 
other two sides of the triangle. 
22 Special. 

13 Hypothesis: — Let two straight lines BD, CD be drawn from 
D, a point \\ithin the triangle ABC ; (the drawing should 
always appear here.) 
23 Demonstrandum: — Then will the sum of BD and DC be less 
than the sum of BA and AC, the other two sides of the 
triangle. 
21 Proof. 

12 Construction: — Produce BD until it meets the side AC at E. 
22 Argument. 

13 First Step, CD<CE+ED, by Prop. 8. 
23 Second Step, CD-fBD<CE+EB, by Ax. 4. 
33 Third Step, BE<BA+AE, by Prop. 8. 
43 Fourth Step, BE+EC<BA+AC, by Ax. 4. 
. • .53 Last Step, CD+BD<BA+AC, by A. Q. E. D. 

31 Conclusion. 
12 Special. 

13 Hj-pothesis:— Let two straight lines, BD, CD, be drawn from 
D, a point within the triangle ABC, to the extremities of 
the side BC ; 
23 Demonstrandum:— Then will the sum of BD and DC be 
less than the sum of BA, AC, the other' two sides of the 
triangle. 



TRIGONOMETRY. 87 

22 General 

13 Hj^potliesis : — If, from a point M'ithin a triangle, two straight 

lines are drawn to the extremities of either side ; 
23 Demonstrandum : — Their sum will be less than the sum of 

the other two sides. 

The preparation of a few such exercises seems to enable the partic- 
ulars of a demonstration to adhere to the mind, as merely reading 
it over or committing it to memory does not. The rigid separation 
of the argument into steps with the faithful citation of authority, 
not by reference, as above, but by full quotation, clears away the 
fog thoroughly. 

The teacher should usually reletter the diagram, but require the 
whole class to use the same lettering, so as to expedite the examin- 
ations of the papers. 

The most thorough review of any given part will be accomplished 
by outlining it. Pupils will thus get the juice of Geometry in being 
led to discover that it is a beautiful evolution which needs only to be 
understood to be appreciated. 

There are many other devices which the ingenious teacher will 
originate to give his pupils opportunity to subject their knowledge 
to the test of written expression. These exercises should make a 
splendid history of the progress of the class and the methods of the 
teacher. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Trigonometry. 

In this subject, many important ends are attained by having exer- 
cises WTitten. Most of the examples should be solved and written 
out according to the best and neatest form. This insures accuracy 
and rapidity. Diagrams should always be neatly drawn. The pa- 
pers of this class will always be interesting. 



88 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

CHAPTER XX. 

Astronomy. 

There are innumerable requisitions for written exercises in this: 
study, such as representation of lieavens at different latitudes, with 
explanations ; diagram and explanation of equation of time ; diagram 
and explanation of phases of moon; diagram and explanation of 
transit of Venus, &c., &c. Great power of clear and correct explan- 
ation can be thus cultivated. "There is no test like the Avritten 
test." 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Calculus and Mechanics. 

The demands of the class will here, as in every other subject, sug- 
gest the preparation of ^' Studies,^'' '■^BecUations,^^ and other exercises 
which will be valua])le for examination and preservation. It should 
not be supposed that pupils in these higher subjects are superior to 
the demand of Exposition methods. They never can be. Systematic 
and thorough instruction in any branch will suggest these practices. 
and the teacher as well as pupil will find his work simplified and 
diminished. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

The Languages. 

In no department have the Exposition methods aided me more as 
an instructor than in the Languages, particularly in Latin and 
Greek. The paradigms, parsing lessons, and translations should all 
proceed by written ^^ Studies, ^^ '' Eecitations,''^ &c. I have had a 
class of beginners at the first "Review" upon the five declensions, 
as a whole, write out all the terminations without an error of im- 
portance. When pupils thus assure themselves of their thorough- 
ness, they acquire a confidence in their own power and in the skill 
of their teacher which is the best aid to genuine thoroughness. 
I have had as a ^'•Eevieio " the terminations of the four conjugations. 



RHETORIC. 8d 

in all the various moods and tenses, and so secured a thoroughness 
which would hardl}' seem possible. The paper, for these memory 
exercises, is always prepared by neat rulings, before the pupils 
come to the class. In this preparation, the pupil will exhibit much 
neatness and business style. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

Rhetoric. 

In my suggestions upon Reading I have mdicated the best prac- 
tices upon this subject. They will be varied according to the class 
and teacher, but all teaching in this subject should be rather of 
practice than of principle. The latter should be learned only by 
means of the former. All original efforts should be critisized by the 
teacher, then corrected by the pupil ; that is, the critic should merely 
indicate the errors, leaving it to the pupil to correct. A list of the 
usual errors should be made out, each one numbered, and that num- 
ber placed upon the exercise where the error occurs. The pupil 
sees the number, refers to the list, notes the character of the error 
he has made, and is so enabled at once to correct it intelligently. 

The best list of such errors, or *' scale of criticism," will be found 
in ''Holbrook's Complete Grammar, Appendix." The following is 
a list of a few of the exercises engaged in by a Rhetoric Class in a 
Public High School under my direction. Refer also, in this con- 
nection, to what has been said above in Reading. 

1. Outline of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. 

2. Short essays upon the different portions of the Dictionary, 

beginning with the binding, copyright, prefaces, &c., «&c. 

3. Outlines of Clock. 

4. Essays assigned from topics included in the outline. 

5. Hamlet's Soliloquy copied, (Study.) 

6. Comments on Hamlet's Soliloquy. 

7. A paper giving the incorrect sentences of another pupil's es- 

say, with the same sentence corrected. 

8. The Story of Hamlet, (Study.) 

9. The Story of Hamlet, (Recitation.) 
10. Life of Shakespeare, (Recitation.) 



^0 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

11. Hamlet's Soliloquy, (Recitation.) 

12. The passage on "Mercy," from ''Merchant of Venice," cop- 

ied, (Study.) 

13. The story of "Merchant of Venice," (Study.) 

14. The story of Snowbound, (Study.) 

15. Allusions to persons, places, &c., in "Snowbound" explain- 

ed, (Study.) 

16. Lowell's "True Nobleness;" (Study.) 

17. Lowell's "True Nobleness," (Recitation.) 

18. Lowell's "First Snow Fall," (Study.) 

19. Lowell's "First Snow Fall," [Recitation.) 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

Resume. 

In the preceding chapters of this article are given hints as to 
methods of teaching most of the subjects already taught in schools 
of all grades. These points have been brought within the proper 
limits, and yet it is thought the enterprising teacher will find them 
practical and full of suggestions. They are not theories. Every 
one of them is a statement of what has been done repeatedly and 
successfully and easily. It will be noticed that through them all 
runs the unifying idea of the "Exposition," but let me caution 
teachers against making the "Exposition" an end. This it should 
never be. It is always and only a means of making the work of both 
pupil and teacher more definite, more systematic, and more thor- 
ough. It will be found that these methods will themselves teach 
the teacher, bringing before him in distinct and orderlj'^ manner mul- 
titudes of facts in his work, which in the ordinary management en- 
tirely escape the attention. The continual danger to be guarded 
against will be the tendency to let the "Exposition idea" become 
formal, and therefore hateful and harmful. I do not fear that it 
will not be used nearly so much as I do that it will be abused. It 
should inspire and enliven ; it may easily be made a tiresome rou- 
tine and a baneful drudgery. This must depend upon the teacher. 
There is no method which is proof against a stupid or a lazy teacher. 



MOUNTING THE MATERIAL. 91 

On the other hand, the better the method, and the more capable it is 
of good results, the more liable it is to be outraged by some poor 
teacher who expects to find in it a remedy for his own incompet- 
ency. The only guard against abuse and extremes in using these 
methods will be found in the caution which I have already repeated 
several times : Let no exercise he taken which the needs of the class 
do not really suggest. 



PART IV. 



Mounting the Material. 



CHAPTER I. 

Introduction. 

« 

It will be found that the best method is the easiest, and that the 
proper preparation of the work so that it will be expressive of all 
that is possible, and at the same time clearly self-explanatorj^, will 
take less time than any unmethodic practices. Order and system 
are here, as ever, great time savers, as well as great helps to moral- 
ity. The suggestions which are to follow are the result of many 
experiments and faithful tests. Not one has been untried, and ev- 
ery one represents the results of many approximate efforts. -Just 
what items to record, in order to express the most, and what items 
to omit, because practically unnecessary, could only be determined 
"by careful tests and experiment. No mere suggestion of theory or 
untried plans would meet the case. 

"Mounting" means the placing of such marks on the individual 
papers, and upon collection of papers, and such disposition of the 
papers, as will make their examination easy and profitable. Let us 
•consider, in order: 

1 . Mounting of Individual papers. 

2. Mounting of Papers of a Class. 

3. Mounting of Papers of the Whole School. 



U2 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

CHAPTER II. 

Mounting Individual Papers. 

At the top of every exercise, placed low enough to permit biudiug, 
should be a heading consisting of a statement of such facts as are 
important to any one examining the paper. These facts should be 
so disposed as to stand out distinctly and strike the eye easily. 

The following items are important in this connection : 

1. The name of the pupil. This should occupy the first line and. 
the center of the heading. 

2. The age of the pupil. This should follow the name. 

3. Tlie standing of the pupil as obtained by this exercise, and 
stated in figures according to the scale common to the whole class. 
This should occupy a prominent place so that it may strike the eye 
quickly. 

4. The rank of the pupil in the class in this exercise. This I do 
not deem important and may be omitted without harm. 

5. The number of the exercise as one of a series from this class in 
this branch of study. This will show the amount of work done 
and, partly, the point of progress at which it was done. 

6. The grade of the pupil, or the year of the school course. In an 
ungraded school this will, of course, be omitted, but the other items 
of the heading will enable any one familiar with the school grada- 
tions to determine approximately the grade, 

7. The branch of study from which the exercise is taken. This 
should occupy a conspicuous place, 

8. TJie date of the exercise, that is, the day of month and year. 
This item is very important as it, with the number, enables the in- 
spector to determine when in the progress of the school it was pre- 
pared, and how much of similar work was done, and it forms a. 
part of, 

1). How prepared. That is, whether it was done as "Study," 
"Recitation," "Review," "Periodical Examination," or "Pinal 
Examination." This is one of the most important, and with the 
next item will form the key to any correct judgment of the exer- 
cises. Some care should be taken by the teacher to inform the pub- 
lic of the full significance and importance of these items. 



MOUNTING INDIVIDUAL PAPERS. 93 

10. Time used. This item will be of especial importance to the 
teacher in the management of his school, in assigning lessons, &c. 
It is of course, indispensable to any correct estimate of the value of 
any work presented. The time should be expressed in hours and 
fractional parts of an hour. 

11. The name of the teacher. This is important when the work 
of many teachers is exhibited. 

12. The subject of the lesson. This should have its usual place 
at the center of the page, and immediately preceding the exercise 
itself, 

In these items we have sufficient data upon which to base an ad- 
equate and fair judgment of the work of the pupil in every given 
exercise. 

Arranged in the most systematical and effective manner these 
items will form the following heading: 



No .... Pupil Age Standing Baiik . 

Year of Course Branch Date 

Teacher How Prepared Time used. 

Subject : 



This heading may be neatly put upon the paper by the pupils 
themselves, or the teacher may arrange to have the booksellers fur- 
nish their paper with this heading properly printed upon it, at the 
same rates as they furnish the paper itself. This I have done with- 
out any trouble. The heading should be about one and a half inches 
from the top of the paper, and the space given to each item must be 
according to its character; the proper relative spacing is shown in 
the accompanying form. The paper should be of uniform size; 
foolscap is the most economical. 

Now it is not insisted that every one of these items in this head- 



94 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

ing must necessarily be used. Some teachers may retain some and 
omit otliers, yet I am quite confident that if a full history is desired 
of the work and its preparation, that no one of these data will be 
found unimportant, and that the spacing and disposing of the items 
is as good as possible. 

CHAPTER III. 

Mounting the Papers of a Class. 

There are two methods by which the exercises of a class may be 
grouped. The first may be called the Class Method. It is to collect 
the exercises of all the pupils upon any given subject, arrange them 
according to their standing, putting the highest first, and binding 
them. This arrangement presents a species of instantaneous view 
of the class, which is not only very useful to teachers but interest- 
ing to patrons, since it compares all the children in such exercise. 

The second method may be called the Individual Method. It is to 
collect all the exercises of each pupil in each class, and arrange 
them according to number. This will enable each pupil at the close 
of the exposition to get possession of all his own papers without 
difficulty, while, in the other arrangement, they will be distributed 
through many bundles, each one of which will have to be unbound 
to get any one pupil's papers. 

The benefit of comparison which comes from the first method will 
recommend it; besides, it will often be an object with the teacher 
to see that the papers are not restored to the pupils, but carefully 
put away and preserved for comparison with papers prepared by 
the same school and other schools in future years. 

In this is the great value of the Exposition, and the true teacher 
will emphasize its importance. There will be few who will have 
enterprise enough to accomplish an Exposition. When it is once 
done, the time which is likely to intervene before another one is 
prepared by another teacher or superintendent, will be enough to 
make the comparison of work very instructive. 

It may be well to combine both methods. The work of the lower 
grade pupils being mounted by the first, the higher by the second. 

When the first method is adopted, a neat cover should be adop- 
ted for each bundle of exercises. 



MOUNTING THE PAPERS OF A CLASS. 95 

For instance, suppose a written recitation lias been had on the 
Principles of Common Fractious. The papers of the class have been 
examined and marked by the teacher, have been returned to the 
pupil, and they have reported corrections of the errors made. Now 
the teacher collects all these papers into one bundle, placing the 
highest first, and over the first one lays the cover, punches holes 
through cover and all, passes through binding points and so fastens 
them. Now this cover should have displayed upon it the important 
facts, with reference to this class and this exercise. Besides num- 
ber, date, grade, branch, subject, how prepared, time used, name of 
teacher, which are given in the individual heading, it will exhibit 
the name of the school, the termini of the school year, the average 
age of the class, the number in the class and the name of superin- 
tendent. The following is the form which I finally adopted. I had 
this printed at my own expense on tinted paper and supplied it to 
my teachers. My trustees finally assumed this expense- 



SECOND ANNUAL EXPOSITION 

OF THE 

VINELAND PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

For the School Year Beginning Ending 

REGtTLAIl WORK. Xo selections made — Every Pupil represented. 



No Date 

Grade Year of Course . 

Subject Average Age . . . 

Lesson No. in Class . . . 

Manner 



Preparation^ 

Time used. 



Teacher Average Standing 

11. H. HOLBBOOK, Superintendent. 



96 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Tliis form may be easily adapted, with a few changes, to the needs 
of the individual method. In a country district school, or in a small- 
graded system, it will abundantly repay the teacher or superintend- 
ent to have these covers printed on neat paper; still, they may be 
written with ink without much effort. The covers of my first ex- 
position were all thus prepared. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Mounting the Material of the Whole School. 

It will be remembered that the school work was to be so placed 
upon exhibition that it could be examined comfortably and con- 
veniently. 

First, then, comfortably. This is best accomplished by displaying 
the work upon the regular study desks, so that visitors may exam- 
ine it wiiile seated, and so give to it any length of time desirable. 

But to lay the work loosely upon the desks would soon bring it 
into confusion and disarrangement. Means must therefore be 
adopted to fix it upon the desk. To accomplish this, when binding 
let the binding pin at the under side pass thr.ough a tape loop, and 
fasten it with the paper; the loop should be so short as not to show 
from above ; then pass string through these loops and so tie the 
bundles to the desk; they will thus be kept in their place and in the 
proper order. 

Second, conveniently. This means that the work should be so dis- 
posed as to enable any one to find easily any work of any given pupil 
or grade. Some system must be accepted. 

There are here two methods : The horizontal and the vertical. 

The horizontal method would place the first year's work first, the 
second year next and so on. If the school is small, the primary 
work would occupy the first tier of seats, the second year's work 
the second and so on; or, if the school is large, the Primary work 
would appear in one room, the Grammar School in another, the 
High School work in another; or, for room substitute building, if the 
schools are quite large, though usually the central or High School 
Iniilding will sufliciently serve the purpose. In arranging the work 
of any class of any grade, the different exercises may be arranged 



MOUNTING THE MATERIAL OF THE WHOLE SCHOOL. 97 

ticcorcling to number, separately, or, man}' exercises, each having 
its cover, may be bound together to economize space, or tlie same 
w^orlc done by different teacliers may be thus bound togetlier or 'so 
arranged that they may be compared easily. This parallel work is 
always very interesting, particularly to the teachers involved. 

The vertical method would group all the materials of any one 
branch throughout the different grades together. For instance, in 
one room would be placed the Reading of all the grades, from the 
Primary to the High School. So another room would contain the 
Mathematics, another the Geography, and so on. This method is 
more logical than practicable. It so scatters the work of any given 
child that its friends will have difficulty in finding it, and since the 
purpose of the exposition is to make the material as accessible to 
the patrons as possible, this objection is sufficient to give the other 
method the preference. This vertical method is perhaps more sci- 
entific, and would afford members of the profession more interest, 
but this is not reason enough for its adoption. 

An engraving of a room with material so disposed in it is shown 
In the frontis-piece. Besides the written exercises on the desks, 
there appear on the wall tbe Herbarium sheets of the Botany class. 
On tables provided for the purpose should be displayed the zoolog- 
ical cabinets of the pupils. In some part of the room or some sep- 
arate room, should be the apparatus of the Natural Philosophy class, 
also the experiments of this class and the Chemistry class. These 
should be in operation by the pupils during the Exposition. 

In addition to the school work, there will be flowers in vases, 
pots and baskets, evergreen trimmings, pictures, bird cages and 
other ornaments, such as the children will bring in an over-abund- 
ance. Ushers, selected from the pupils, will be on hand to show 
visitors to any work and explain it if necessary. 

The Exposition should continue from one to three days. In my 
own practice it was held in the High School building, and was 
open the first three daj'S of the week after close of school. The 
rooms were thronged during the time by multitudes who could un- 
der no other circumstances be persuaded to give work of their chil- 
dren in the schools the slightest attention. 

Among the most patient and careful visitors are the school chil- 
dren themselves who delight to seek out their o^^ti work and that 
of their comrades. 



98 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

PART y. 



APPENDIX A, 



Extract from Eeport of the State Superintendent of 

Education of New Jersey, 1877, 

Being the description of the School Exposition of the Vineland Public Schools^ 

as reported to the State Superintendent, by R. L. Howell, County 

Superintendent of Schools, Cumberland County, N. J. 

I have made my usual rounds of visits, though in two or tliree 
instances I have failed to visit some remote schools more than once ; 
while in other cases I have visited the schools very often, in one 
instance as often as twenty times, though this was where the school 
was near at hand, and I was much inlerested in the methods in use. 

This was the High School in Vineland, under Prof. Holbrook, and 
I speak of it particularly, because I have watched there the develop- 
ment of an idea new to me, and one that I deem very valuable, and 
to which I wish to call the attention of the educators of the State as 
producing very valuable results witli very little extra labor. 

District No. 44 embraces the central portion of the town of Vine- 
land, and has seven school buildings and fourteen teachers, all being^ 
under the supervision of the Principal of the High School. When 
Prof. Holbrook took charge of the schools he instructed the teachers 
of the primary grades to secure sliort specimens of the writing of 
each of their scholars, on separate slips of paper, properly headed, 
to enable the same to be classified and identified, and to preserve 
these slips carefully. 

In his own room much of the work done was written, and all 
papers prepared by his students were kept. 

The regular written examinations of all the schools occurred at 
the close of each term, and the papers prepared by the students on 
those occasions were preserved. The heading of the papers, giving 
the subject, grade, name and age of the pupil, teacher, &c., were at 
first written, but to secure neatness and uniformity, printed blanks 
were substituted during the second term. 

As these papers accumulated, the Professor conceived the idea of 
an exposition, and this was carried out at the close of the schools. 



REPORT OF STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION. 00 

All the papers from the different schools were brought to the Cen- 
tral High School building, and were neatly and conveniently arranged 
for inspection, according to grade, in the four school rooms. 

This exposition was kept open two days, and excited much inter- 
est and attracted many visitors, among them the Millville teachers, 
who went in a body, by permission of the Board of Trustees (their 
schools being still open), and at the invitation of the Vineland 
teachers, by whom they were cordially welcomed and hospitably 
entertained. 

It richly merited all the attention it received, for it was unique. 

It was an exposition, not of the selected work of the picked schol- 
ars, prepared for show, but an exposition of the actual school work 
of every one of the 748 scholars enrolled in District No. 44, in each 
branch studied by them, and showed not what they could do, but 
what they did. It told its own story, and showed exactly what ad- 
vancement had been made by the pupils of each school during the 
year. It obviated all necessity of questioning as to what had been 
done; the parents could go and see for themselves. So complete 
was this exposition, that I was able to respond to your request for 
work for the Educational Department of the Permanent Exposition, 
selecting from it over 1800 papers what I deemed of sufficient inter- 
est to forward to you. I might have sent as many more, but thought 
these sufficient. All the papers of a class, on any given subject. 
were bound together, thus rendering reference to them possible. It 
is easily seen that this imposes but little additional labor on the 
teachers, since all that was necessary was to secure, occasionally, 
written recitations, and to preserve the papers ^o written. Of course 
this safe keeping with the arranging the binding, and the final ar- 
rangement for exhibition, did involve some additional labor, but no 
teacher who saw the good effects of the plan would for a moment 
begrudge the time necessary. 

The knowledge that all their work is kept to be shown to the pub- 
lic is a powerful incentive to do good work, and to exhibit as much 
improvement as possible; for the youngest of the puj^ils soon come 
to understand that their work at the beginning of the year will be 
shown side by side with that done at the end of the year, and they 
take pride in showing how much better they can do. 



100 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Again, the exposition had a powerful influence in holding the pu- 
pils in school to the close— a very difficult object to accomplish, as 
all teachers know. 

Each pupil wanted his work to be among the exposition work of 
the last term, and so really wished to remain through the final ex- 
amination — a condition of things that is hard to realize as existing 
with the average school l)oy after the season of " spring fever." 

I have devoted considerable space to this exposition, but I think 
no more than its results on the schools demand. 



SECOND VINELAJSTD SCHOOL EXPOSITION 

[From Yineland Weekly.] 

Almost everybody who attended the exposition at the High School 
building on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, spoke of the great 
superiority of the present display, and amount of real work accom- 
plished over that of last year. The rooms were all tastefully decor- 
ated with flowers, pictures, etc., while on the blackboards in each 
were crayon sketches illustrating subjects of the last lessons recited. 
Eor instance, in the room devoted to philosophical experiments, 
were excellent representations of the hydraulic press, the siphon, 
sections of the common pump, etc. In another room maps of var- 
ious countries, while some of the boards were devoted to original 
designs for calico patterns, book-covers, window curtains, and spec- 
imens of writing. The examination papers of the pupils, which were 
neatly covered and arranged sj^stematically on the desks, showed the 
improvement each had made during the school year, and in many 
instances the progress made was simply wonderful, and showed not 
only the ability of teachers, but most earnest application on the part 
of the pupil. The different grades are now fully established, in 
good working order, and we hope that the next principal will not 
make a radical change, but keep on the work which has shown such 
good results. Hundreds of our citizens visited the exposition, and 
also many strangers, not one of whom, that we have been informed 
of, but what was pleased with what he saw. Let the good work go 
on. — Vineland Weekly. 



OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 101 

EXPOSITION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS AT VINELAND, N. J. 

[From Vinelaud Atlvertistr.] 

Auy person who attended the Exposition of last year could not 
fail to oljserve the great difference and improvement in every way. 
Last year the people labored under the difficulty of not fully under- 
standing the full working of the system, while even the scholars and 
the teachers themselves did not seem to fully appreciate and work 
so completely together. It was, in a great measure, an experiment, 
and therefore those most closely interested did not grasp it heartily 
and fully. The Exposition this year shows that not only is it no 
longer an experiment, but even the very lowest in the lowest grade 
took hold of the idea and strove to bring it to perfection. 

Of course it has been hard work — both for teachers and pupils. 
It has necessitated a constant pushing on all sides and by all. Eor 
the teachers it has been continual watching and supervision — day 
and night — and nobly have they answered to the call on them. Night 
after night have they been compelled to bend over their work — cor- 
recting and revising — in order that nothing should interfere with 
the regular work in school hours. They deserve all the kind words 
and encouragement that can be given to them, for they have not 
worked merely for the salary they received, but as teachers should : 
with a deep feeling of the responsibility resting upon them, a real 
teachers desire for the advancement of the pupils in their charge. 
They have all worked — not, perhaps, attaining the same position — 
but all showing the same marked progress from last year. 

Vineland will have to look for a long time and be the sufferers of 
many failures before getting together as efficient a corps of teachers 
as have graced our schools for the part year. It is to be greatly 
hoped that for next year, there will be none — unless of necessity — 
and even then as few as possi]3le, breaks in the chain of unity of pur- 
pose that now binds the schools of District 44: together. 

To the principal — Prof. Holbrook — (who is the originator of the 
system) there is more due from the people than they can hope to re- 
pay. He has been untiring in his efforts, unflagging in his zeal, to 
bring out perfection — guiding, exhorting, stimulating, suggesting — 
seeming to take in the whole situation at a glance. 



102 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Nor have the pupils fallen one whit below. To every call on them 
they huve heartily responded ; they have urged on eaeh other and 
engaged in friendly rivalry in attaining the coveted position ; they 
have seemed to get a glimmer of what was desired of them and 
strained every nerve to reach the point. 

Taken all together, this has been a year of work — hard work for 
the whole school, from principal down, and the papers spread on 
the desks in the High School on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday 
of this week show it plainly. There can be no comparison of one 
pupil with another, as the progress is strikinglj'- the same over all 
the schools. But the work of any one pupil compared with the work 
of a 3'ear ago is very strongly marked. Even taken in that direction, 
it is difficult to compare the progress made by one student with that 
made by another. In every direction the beauty of the system most 
plainly shows itself. A pupil can be followed from one grade to an- 
other — ascending from the first scribble and pot-hook to the last 
grade of the graduate — every turn, every improvement, with no 
break or anything to mar the steady onward and seemingly resist- 
less march. Some departments, especially those who were not re- 
moved from their own appropriate rooms, showed greater care in 
arrangement than others, and each teacher's particular beat could 
be clearly distinguished, while many times we discovered all the 
scholars of a room taking a course that was neither that of the 
teacher nor the text-book they were using. To illustrate this : In 
Miss Eldridge's room, we observed that in the writing the pupils 
did not take either the system that headed their copy-books nor 
their teacher's — but rather a middle course eml)odying both. The 
WTiting of all is strikingly similar, yet just as strikingly a deviation 
from the copy. 

Throughout the whole can be traced the effort — and successful, 
too — of the teachers to make the students think for themselves. 
The motto of the philosophy class (adopted by themselves) is 
"Why ? " — showing that they had a lively appreciation of their po- 
sition. In room "D " we came across some strikingly original busi- 
ness ideas, showing a knowledge of business requirements often 
lacking in persons much older. In another room the pupils had for 
a lesson the getting up of "newspaper items" — under given heads. 
They were largely composed of "serious injuries" and "deaths," 



OUTLINE OF THE MATERLVL SCIENCES. 103 

but seemed to prove an excellent lesson. [We feel much like en- 
couraging that branch of study, as there would be fewer who would 
have an idea they could "run a newspaper" and many more who 
could appreciate in some slight degree, the work of an editor.] 
Even in the work that did not attain high marks on the rolls, docs 
the same fact of every one standing on liis own merit and exerting 
the powers of observation to the utmost, appear. 

The black-board exercises (which were merely the last day exer- 
cises) were such that pupils, class, teachers and schools could well 
be proud of them — showing an intimate knowledge of the details of 
the subject they were dealing with. 

The rooms were all tastefully decorated with pictures and flow- 
ers, all the work of the pupils of the different roome and the ushers 
— a detail made from each room to exhibit the work — were thor- 
oughly familiar with their duty, making it a pleasant thing to do to 
look over the papers. 

The Exposition is still more of a success than last year. It com- 
mends itself even to the superficial observer as being eminently the 
touchstone of true advancement of the pupils and the practical ap- 
plication of the lessons of the school. — Vineland Advertiser. 



APPENDIX B. 

Outline of the Material Sciences. 
11 Mind. 
21 Matter. 

12 Considered abstractly, or Conditions. Mathematics. 

13 Time. 

14 Particular. Arithmetic. 

2^ General. Algebra. 

23 Space, Place or Position. 

1^ Particular Magnitude or Fixed Position. 

15 Extent and Direction. Geometry. 

25 Direction and Extent. Trigonometry. 

24 General, or Motion or Changing Position. 

15 Direction and Extent. Analytics. 

25 Time, Direction and Extent. Calculus. 



104 



SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 



22 Considered Concretely. 

13 Particular. 

1"* Inorganic. 
15 Celestial : Cosmogony. 
25 Terrestrial. 
16 Crust. 
17 structure. 
18 Mechanical. 
28 Chemical. 

2" Surface. 
18 Description. 
28 Measurement. 

2*> Envelop. 
2i Organic. 
15 Vegetable. 
25 Animal. 

16 General. 

26 Special. 

23 General. 
14 Substance. 
15 Properties. 
25 Constitution. 

24 Force. 
15 Physical. 

16 Mechanical. 
V Molar. 
18 Attraction. 
19 Terrestrial. 
29 Gravity. 

28 Pressure. 

19 Balanced or Equilibrium, 
29 Unbalanced or Momentum 

2' Molecular. 

l"^ Vibratory or Sound. 
28 Attraction. 

19 Adhesion. 29 Cohesion. 

26 Chemical. 
17 Vibratory. 

18 Heat. 

28 Light. 
27 Attraction. 

18 Electricity. 

28:Affinity. 

25 Vital. 



Astronomy. 



Geology. 
Mineralogy. 

Geography. 
Surveying. 

Meteorology. 
Biologj'. 
Botany. 

Zoology. 
Physiology. 



Somatology. 
Atomology. 

Natural Philosophy. 
Mechanical Physics. 



Statics. 
Dynamics. 

Acoustics. 



Chemical Physics. 

Pyronomics. 
Optics. 

Electricity. 
Chemistry^ 



FIRST PRINCIPLES. 105' 



APPENDIX C. 



First Principles. 

The right of the state to educate need not be questioned by the 
practical educator or legislator. It is a fact — the grandest fact of 
American civilization. It is coeval with our country's birth and 
continuous with its growth and development. Our nation itself is 
not more a fact. Question this right and you make American so- 
ciety and all its institutions a fiction and without settled founda- 
tions. The right and duty of the state to educate was a germ 
planted by the earliest colonists; but, as has been well said, "The 
tree which has sprung from the germ would amaze the original 
planters. Its development is not due to the argument of any phil- 
osopher or the wisdom of any legislator. It has been gradually 
influenced by the ecclesiastical, political and social requirements of 
the country. Theoretically, it has many defects ; practically, it is 
adapted to the circumstances of the land. No European country is 
likely to adopt it; the American will not abandon it. It is the 
pride of the people, the satisfaction of the poor man, and the pro- 
tection of the rich man. Its influence in the promotion of intelli- 
gence and prosperity in the northern and eastern states has been 
rated so high that every new state adopts i twithout question."* 

If then, in the spirit of Des Cartes, the educational philosopher 
seek an unquestioned basis, he must find it in the fact of state edu- 
cation. The state does educate, therefore it must educate. "Does" 
implies the right, " must " implies the corresponding dutij. 

The nature of this duty and the method of its accomplishment- 
are prime questions. 

What are the Public Schools to Do'? 

It is important before setting out upon any enterprise to de- 
termine clearly the end towards which we are striving. To have 
no definite purpose or object would be bad ; to have a wrong one 
would be worse. 

♦ ' ' Education iu America." North American Review, Jan. , 1871. 



106 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

What is the true and legitimate end of public school work? must 
•ever, then, be a problem of vast moment to the voters and tax 
payers of a nation whose only hope is in its public schools ; but it 
presses home with signal force upon tlie educator who is called 
upon to originate and organize a system of such schools for the 
benefit of a distinct and large community. It behooves him to 
consider well whether he has a sufficient answer to a question 
fraught with so much of prosperity or misfortune to the society 
that has entrusted him with so vast a responsibility. At such a 
time the schools under his charge are at the crisis period of their 
history. They are at that formative stage when the blundering 
hand may mar or the skillful hand may make them for all their 
future, and he will, therefore, see to it that the form in which they 
are cast is moulded in the spirit of a proud philosophy,, that it is 
not warped in the crookedness of prejudice; that its parts are 
not misplaced in the blindness of ignorance, or jostled in the waste 
of haste. 

Upon no subject are there greater differences of opinion and con- 
sequently greater misconceptions than with regard to the objects 
and aims of our public School. The history of education is the 
story of successive ideals raised each for its own time and special 
needs, but all to be swept away only to be replaced by others, 

<' God sends his teachers into every age, 

To every clime, and every race of men, 

With revelations /i«efZ to their growth 

And shape of mind, nor gives the realm of truth 

Into the selfish nile of one sole race." 

So each form or view of education that has swayed the life of 
man <' and given it to grasp the master key of knowledge " *' unfolds 
some germ of truth and right ; 

Else never had the eager soul, which loathes 
The slothful down of pampered ignorance, 
Found in it even a moment's joviul rest." 

I remember reading an account of the exercises of a prayer 
meeting, the subject before which was the personal appearance of 



WHAT ARE THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS TO DO. 107 

Paul, It was a notable fact that Paul was lank, lean and long, in 
the opinion of the lank, lean and long brother; portl}', loud and 
amiable to the brother of that description; and so the grand old 
apostle partook, in every case, very largely of the characteristics of 
the brother who described him. 

In the same manner, views as to what our public schools are to 
do, take their color too frequently from the individual who states 
them. 

The professional gentleman, who desires his children to be schol- 
arly, claims that the public schools should prepare for the profes- 
sions. On the other hand, the mechanic is just as certain that the 
schools should fit childred to be artisans, and that teaching Latin, 
Greek, Rhetoric, etc., is a great mistake. In like manner the 
farmer, who barely sees even the utility of three R's, is clearly of 
the opinion that the public money should not be expended in teach- 
ing subjects, which his own experience has proved unnecessary to 
make a good farmer. And again, the merchant insists that a com- 
mercial education should be arrived at by the schools. 

To meet ail the demands of all these parties is, of course, im- 
possible. 

It would be interesting to consider how far, in its past history, 
the public school work has been warped into special channels, but 
let it suffice to confess that the professions have had the prepond- 
erating influences. As a result, much more consideration than is 
their due is given to the so called claims of the industrial classes. 
These claims are made by many in good faith, by many more in bad 
faith, under the name of Industrial Education. 

Professedly, it is the proposal in behalf of the poor for their pro- 
tection against the rich; while, really, it is a plan of the rich 
against the indefinite advancement of the poor. It is a plan whereby 
the laboring man shall be trained — to labor; that is, to manual 
labor. It is an arrangement whereby the schools shall be estopped 
from teaching the common people their possibilities toward a higher 
and nobler life. It is to provide that children shall be taught 
merely the routines and requisites of the manufactories. It will 
simply be the smoothing out and straightening out of the groove by 
which the masses shall be surely and safely run into the shops — 
where they belong, according to the Industrial Educators. It is, 



108 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

or ought to be, well known by all well informed educators that in 
those nations where education is most industrial, the walls of caste 
are highest and most impassable. The educational system of Ger- 
many, so much lauded by shoddy Americans, is a brutal machine 
which dooms its children to their own level as inexorably as a dread 
destiny. Industrial education is a trick of the envious upper classes 
to keep back the ambitious lower class talent that continually dis- 
places and surpasses them. "We lawyers, we doctors, we preach- 
ers, we teachers are losing our high salaries and comfortable posi- 
tions by letting this tide of underling upstarts rush up into compe- 
tion with us. Let the schools keep them back and force them into 
competition with blacksmiths, machinists and the laboring classes. 
They can or ought to suffer the misfortunes of skilled competition. 
We ought not to suffer, and the schools ought to stop this work of 
preparing the youth of the land for professional or some business 
pursuits." 

The object of the school is not to make machinists any more than 
it is to make Presbyterians. It is to make men — to stir the loftiest 
aspiration of which the humblest soul is capable — to point the low- 
liest plodder to the highest walks in life and say, " You can go there 
if you will. This school will help you!" Why, when you rob a 
teacher of the inspiring thought that some one or more of the 
pupils of his class may become grand and great men, you take from 
him that which not only crushes his pupils into the death of hope- 
lessness, but makes him a drudge indeed. This Industrial educa- 
tion will not only blight the masses, but it will doom our profession 
to a cruel machine life that would drive out of it all but the veriest 
slaves. Teachers should fight it as they would tyranjiy. Our sol- 
diers have been the best the world ever knew, because they were 
educated as men — not soldiers. Our machinists and laboring classes 
are now more intelligent, more inventive, than those of any civil- 
ized nation, because they have been educated as mrn, not as labor- 
ers. Our nation has made its unparalleled progress because its 
masses have been educated as men, free and competent to do what 
their ambitions and desires and capabilities suggest. Have we 
these glorious teachings right before us only to sink into the 
deathly caste contrivances of continental aristocracies? 



WHAT ARE THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS TO DO. 109 

Industrial ecUicatioii is not only imdemocratic, it is impracticable. 
Let us try it. Which trade shall we introduce? Will the carpenters 
be content that blacksmithing shall be taught and carpentering re- 
ceive no favors? Will blacksmiths be satisfied that the schools 
shall be run for the benefit of the farmer? Will the farmers agree 
that they shall be molded to the interests of mechanics? What 
right has any trade, from ditching to architecture, that its interest 
should be favored at the expense of others? The only fair man- 
agement will be to introduce them all, and thus the absurdity of the 
whole matter is reached. 

But it will be urged "Nothing but the merest principles of the 
industries should be taught. It is not intended to convert the 
school rooms into machine shops and manufactories." 

So we are to teach the principles of machinery without machines, 
the theory of industries without an industry, the elements of a 
practical art without the practice. In the name of all the formal- 
ism that is now blighting our schools, isn't there enough of this 
sham already? Greater folly than this cannot be conceived, unless 
it be further urged that these principles be taught to the children 
b}^ lectures. 

But I claim that the principles of all trades, industries and pro- 
fessions are being taught in the schools now. These are Reading, 
Writing, Arithmetic. These have been selected from all time as the 
common branches, the branches which include the principles com- 
mon to all the possibilities of life. Doubtless drawing should be 
added to these, as it is in most of our city schools, and many of 
our country schools. The schools should be as colorless of any 
trade or profession as they are of religious sects. It Avould be just 
as fair to give them some denominational bias as to give them an 
industrial bias. Neither Methodist nor mechanic has any special 
right which the schools are bound to respect. 'Twould be as just 
to convert them into Sabbath Schools as into shops. The schools 
are not to make farmers, or tradesmen, or manufacturers, or me- 
chanics. They are to make men. This is their high calling. De- 
grade them to any lower purpose and their power is gone. The 
schools consecrated to the production of mechanics, will send out 
poor mechanics, and poorer men. There is something better than 
■skilled labor. There is something better than a trained workman. 



110 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

It is an ambitious workman. The immense development of our 
America during tlie last century in every department of labor is 
proof sufficient of this. There is something better than shops, it is 
schools. 

Let it be imderstood that these objections are not against Indus- 
trial Education, but against Industrial Education in the public 
schools. Industrial schools are needed and would serve a good 
purpose to society, to the arts and the trades, but they should be 
established by artisans and traders. As denominational zeal has 
founded many magnificent institutions for the propagation of special 
religious opinions, so should the numberless millionaires, who owe 
their entire wealth and rank to mechanical business, be animated 
by a sufficient regard for the humble laborers by whose hands these 
millions have been achieved to endow and maintain institutions 
Avithin which the children of these mechanics could be made better 
mechanics. Not the State, but Religionists liiust provide for sec- 
tarian promulgation. Not the State, but the Manufacturers, must 
provide for the training of skilled workmen in the different trades. 
When it is right for the State to make appropriations for special 
denominational institutions, then will it be right for the State to 
make appropriations for special mechanical interests. 

A majority of practical farmers, merchants and mechanics accept 
this conclusion. Consult a sensible one of each class and the in- 
stant verdict is: The farm, not the school, is the place to learn 
farming ; the shop, not the school, should teach the trade ; in the 
store, not in the school, should young men learn mercantile affairs. 
It is only the amiable enthusiast, fired with an over zeal for popular 
education, or the pliable school-board man, filled with an overgreed 
for a profitable job, that saddles upon the public school cause the 
stupendous blunders represented in many huge structures devoted 
to the numberless educational extravaganzas that serve the sole pur- 
pose of teaching the folly of pretending that the schools should 
teach everything. 

But these conclusions are little more than a negative answer to 
our question. Its affirmative consideration elevates us at once to 
vastly larger and grander issues. From the various claims of guild 
and rank we pass to those of humanity itself. Our question of ed- 
ucation becomes that of civilization. 



WHAT ARE THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS TO DO. Ill 

And what is more wonderful than this, our Western civilization? 
— rumbling in her manufactories, dashing steam-driven over land 
and sea ; shouting, with her printing press, her doings from Dan to 
Bursheka ; flashing her lightning-sped secrets over earth and through 
water; this wonderful, whirling, whirring. Western civilization! 
whose temple is the school room, wiiose altar is the teacher's 
desk, where blazes, fed hy her faithful priests, the teacher, her 
never dying flame, at which the coming generations are ever light- 
ing their night-piercing torclies to follow her into the reluctantly 
retreating darkness of ignorance and superstition, there to estab- 
lish new temples, new altars, and so to save mankind. 

What is the clue to her spell? What is the secret of her resist- 
less might and power? 

We point to the steam engine, the telegraph, the newspaper, the 
railroad and say : They have done it ! But let us not mistake. They 
are the effect, not the cause. They are but the sign, the sjnnbol. 
Back of them is the secret. We point to the public schools and say: 
They have done it! But let us not err. They are the effect; not 
the cause. They are l)ut the sign, the symbol. Back of them all 
is the secret. Behind them, is the grand, ceaseless ongoing, whose 
resistless current the telegraph, the schools, man may direct, but 
never create. What does it demand of the educator? What is the 
profound, common inspiration that it requires of the common. 
schools for every child of humanity? 

Wise is the educator who realizes that he is huml^ly to learn by 
humbly yielding to its guidance. Happy the teacher who first and 
last confesses he is more to be taught than teach; who is more am- 
bitious to direct than to create ; who will rather clear the way for 
its free course than obstruct by his futile buildings; who will devot- 
edly surrender to its leadings and hopefully join with its move- 
ments ; who will freely submit to it the open channels of his warm- 
est heart and deepest soul, trusting thus to receive most of its in- 
fluence and power, and so be best fitted to become the beneficent 
medium through which it may again be communicated to others. 

Let us now to the answer of our question : What are the public 
schools to do? They are to serve mankind, not a class. The pub- 
lic schools are to educate the public; not the poor, not the rich, but 
both poor and rich; not scholars, not sellers, not servers, but schol- 



112 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

ars, sellers and servers. They are not to raise, but to level all sec- 
tional w^alls. They are not to build up aristocracies, but to merge 
the ties of family and blood into those of humanity. They are not 
to breed clannishness and caste, but to awaken a common sympa- 
thy and a cosmopolitan sentiment. They are to take a brutish man 
and convert him into a humane man. They are to release man 
from the domination of his grosser self and put him under the in- 
fluence of his grander self. They are to change the slave of every 
changing passion and passing impulse into a free man inspired by a 
majestic idea of duty arising within his soul. They are to reveal 
man to man. They are to make man call every other man his brother 
.and claim that 

* * * his father land must be 
As the blue heavens, wide and free. 

This is what our public schools are to do. They are not to make 
scholars, not to make merchants, not to make farmers; but to so 
mould and mix the elements of character in every prospective law- 
yer, merchant, mother, that enters their doors that *' nature might 
stand up and say to all the world:" This is a man, a woman; a 
capable, a willing, a free individual. 

Here is the true mark of the high calling of the public schools. 
Should they reach this they could do no more , for they have led to 
freedom. 

Let us now formulate this conclusion so that we may have in the 
fewest words a sufficient statement of the object or end or purpose 
of education. Such a statement should present in clear relief the 
•central, invariable, essential objective point towards which all edu- 
cational efforts should tend, and with reference to which the young- 
est and oldest teacher may consciously plan and execute his every 
method. It should be a pole star towards which the needle of en- 
terprise in every department of educational effort should faithfully 
point. In other words it should be a practical and practicable 

• Definition of Education. 

Education is the systematic process of training the growing mind to- 
ward the pleasure-giving power of spontaneous^ unselfish, self-improve- 
ment. 



DEFINITION OF EDUCATION. 113 

Let US examine briefly a few terms -in tliis definition, reserving 
for a coming division of our discussion their fuller explication. 

First, then, education is systematic; that is, it is to proceed ac- 
cording to definite and logical principles founded in nature, ob- 
tained from her phenomena by intelligent observation and formulated 
in unifying and simple terms. It is not mere empiricism, mere 
guess work, mere experiment, mere theory. The day of blind luck 
or ignorant experimenting is past. Many principles are as settled 
in educational matters as they are in mathematical. 

Second: Education is ^mmw^; tha't is, is the intelligent direct- 
ing and stimulating of the inherent powers of the mind in those 
channels in which its own energies most freely and happily display 
themselves. 

Third : Education has to do with the growing mind or soul. The 
activity of the soul is the energy of nature implanted within it, 
seeking its own outlook and manifestation, and increasing in power 
and versatility by its own inherited, inherent laws and necessities. 
A soul that is not growing is dead, and the teacher has no more to 
do with it than has the farmer with a rotten stump. 

Eourth: Education is to result in power. Power comes from 
practice or use by the mind. of its own energies. It does not come 
from cramming; it does not come from reciting from memory; it 
does not come from passivly receiving instruction from a talking 
teacher or lecturing professor; it does not come from passing ex- 
aminations; it does come from the continued practice of converting 
all knowledge received into skilled expression by spoken words, by 
written words, by action upon real objects, by useful hands, by 
philanthropic effort, by an exemplary life. 

Fifth: Education must train to a pleasure-giving power. The 
performance of duty, however irksome, however difficult, however 
painful, should be pleasure-giving, and the teaching which in spirit 
and results does not fix this habit of action is radically wrong and 
vicious. 

Sixth: Spontaneous. The effort of the mind or soul toward im- 
provement should be spontaneous, easy, unrestrained. This does 
not mean that it should not involve effort; on the other hand, the 
more effort it requires the more enthusiasm and intensity should it 
evoke. 



114 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. ^ 

Seventh : Unselfish. An education which involves self improve- 
ment for self's sake is utterly bad. The best and most practical 
philanthropy is that which accumulates self power for benevolence 
and goodness. A true education will encourage ambition, encour- 
age the accumulation of wealth, the acquisition of mental, moral 
and social power — but always toward the end that it shall be useful 
for mankind. 

Eighth: Self improvement. This is the terminus of all formal 
educational effort. When a young man or woman has the power of 
improving himself he is ready for life, and the school should dis- 
miss him to work out his own work. To hold him longer is to rob 
the world of power. Many of our higher schools are continually 
plundering society of needed available energy by their long courses 
of study. Our great men are those who have grown up in their husU 
ness, not those who have grown up in the schools . 

Thus we have established the mark at w^hich our public schools 
should aim. It is high, but not too high. If anything higher can 
be thought, then that is the true mark. 

Having thus briefly replied to the question : What are our public 
schools to do? let us consider a second question: 

How are they to do it? 

The answer to this question must be the statement and exposition 
of a complete system of education. It is expected only to point, 
out a few fundamental principles, which, if duly regarded, will en- 
sure a safe and comely superstructure. 

The infinite variety and complexity of nature must here, as in 
other departments of science, be resolved into that unity and sim- 
plicity which always characterize her phenomena. And if we are 
enabled to summarize her multifarious developments in a few sim- 
ple, practical principles, will not their very fewness and simplicity 
argue their proximity to absolute verity? 

Our question involves three things: (1.) The nature of the 
learner. (2.) The methods of the teacher. (3.) The materials of 
the teaching. And this is their natural order. The cultivator of a 
plant considers first the nature of the plant; decides upon the 
method of treating it; and then proceeds to supply himself with 
the proper materials. A mechanic studies the character of his 
job, determines how he will proceed, then provides himself with 
the needed materials and instruments. Let us be as wise with our 
problem. 



THE NATURE OF THE LEARNER. 115 



Tlie Natnre of the Learner. 

First, then, man as a learner is an activity ; and like all vital ac- 
tivities of nature is destined, impelled by its very being to grow ; 
in other words, to increase in power ; in other words, to improve, 
all doctrines, dogmas to the contrary, notwithstanding. Why 
should the churches, which are themselves the noblest evidences of 
this, be the ones to mislead us? It is the nature of the mind to be 
active, and to be active in the right direction ; to be active toward 
increase of power and goodness. To admit that it is a vital activity 
is to admit this. Schools, like the churches, are disposed to belie 
nature in order to magnify themselves. Let us not make this ter- 
rible blunder. The children in our schools are naturally disposed 
to be good, to improve. Go into any school room, point me out 
one bad one and I will show you twenty good ones. Are we to 
judge all human nature by these exceptions? Go into yonder forest, 
find one ugly, gnarled oak, and I will find a score of grand, tower- 
ing specimens. Shall we conclude that oaks are naturally ugly and 
gnarled? Does any farmer preach that fruit trees are naturally un- 
fruitful because one out of flftj^, or twenty, or ten, fail him? Man 
as a learner is one of nature's growing activities. Has she blund- 
ered in this, the grandest, noblest of her works? Nature is wise, 
beneficent, good. The great Creator, I am willing to maintain, 
knew his business, and it little behooves man to set himself up as 
am improver upon his works. Let the teacher, as he stands before 
his children, humbly recognize in their every soul the energy, the 
effort, the purpose of a good God, whose great will as expressed 
through them he should patiently study and learn ; not to correct, 
but to give it free course ; not to repress and crush, but to free 
from every hindering obstacle and encumbering weight. 

The human being learns, all the way from the cradle to the grave; 
whether he wills to or not; w^hether he goes to school or not. It 
is just as impossible for him not to learn as it is not to grow phys- 
ically. Learning is mental growth. It should never be anything 
more, it can never be anything less. 

We are ready now to affirm two universal , indemonstrable truths 
or axioms : 



116 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

1. Tlie Axiom of Activity. — The mind is inherently active. 

2. The Axiom of Improvement. — The mind is inherently im- 
proving. 

The second is really a corollary of the first ; but t hey are sepa- 
rately so important and undeniable as to warrant for them an equal 
rank. 

But the phenomenon, the learner, posesses not only properties, 
but possibilities. A true analysis of the mind must recognize not 
only its indemonstrable properties, but indemonstrable possibilities; 
not only what the mind is, but what may be done with it. Thus 
we pass from the theoretical to the practical aspect of our phenom- 
enon. 

Activity implies something to act against — an environment which 
seems to direct and stimulate ; conditions which may be effects to- 
wards which the mind, as a cause, tends, or causes which may 
work their effects upon the mind. The relation of the mind to its 
externals, or of its externals to the mind are facts of nature ; funda- 
mental, primary facts. They are the very rootage of all formal ed- 
ucation. The action of matter on mind, mind upon mind, is no ar- 
tificial device of intelligence. It is the common phenomenon of all 
animal nature. It existed probably in the brute creation long be- 
fore the animal reached man's estate. It is the first induction, 
conscious or unconscious, from all sentient phenomena, that the 
environment of the mind may be so adjusted as to give direction, 
or to act as a stimulus. The recognition of these facts, and the 
systematic consideration of what adjustments are most favorable 
or most unfavorable to these ends is the whole science of formal 
education as distinguished from natural education. Every process 
in the art of education is here postulated. We are therefore lead 
up to the two universal, indemonstrable problems, as we were 
above to two universal, indemonstrable theorems. 

(1.) Postulate of Bias. The mind can be directed. 

(2.) Postulate of Stimulus. The mind can be stimulated. 

Notice, now, how we have corroborated our definition of educa- 
tion. We have found in nature all the facts necessary for its full 
realization. We can act upon it, build upon it, knowing that we 
act and work with nature ; nay, knowing that we are letting her 
work with us, that we are linking our weakness to her might. 



THE NATURE OF THE LEARNER. 117 

Out of these two axioms and two postulates will proceed the 
science and art of education. (Vide appendix E.) 

Though we have reached the basal beams of our structure, we 
liave not yet determined the nature of the mind sufficiently to pred- 
icate distinct methods of procedure. 

The method of the teacher or how to deal with man as a learner 
must come from a study of the manner in which nature herself 
deals with man as a learner, or stated a little differently, how this 
activity grows of itself within its natural environments — what are 
its simplest stages, its elementary modes. Having determined 
these, we must let them suggest what educational appliances should 
be adopted, and how they are to be used. 

Man as a learner is a very complex growing activity, involving 
all the possibilities of the entire man, physical and spiritual. Now 
by passing from this the highest to the lowest growing activity, or 
from the most complex to the least complex, we shall find the ele- 
mentary phases, (for, nature is ever true to herself,) just the same, 
but less encumbered and diversified. A plant is the lowest and 
simplest form of a growing activity. Its growth involves three 
stages of processes: 1st., Ahsorption, by root and leaf; 2d, Assim- 
ilation^ by all its internal organs, and 3d, Fructification or reproduc- 
tion. In these three processes the cycle of vegetable activity is 
completed. 

The same trinity of processes is manifested and maintained in all 
the higher growing activities. Man absorbs the materials of his 
growth by his lacteals and lungs as the plant does by its roots and 
leaves ; the main difference being, that in the one the organs are 
internal, in the other, external. Man assimilates from his blood 
the materials thus absorbed, as does the plant from its sap. From 
the materials thus absorbed and assimilated, the individual man is 
enabled to reach the culmination of his ph3'sical existence in the 
reproduction of his kind, as does the plant in its fructification. 

The animal man, therefore, as a growing activity exhibits a trinity 
of processes corresponding closely to the infinitely less complex 
processes of the vegetal)le as a growing activity. 

Passing now to the educa])le man and reasoning by analog}', that, 
as a growing activity he partakes of the essential characteristics of 



118 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

all growing activities, we reach a veiy significant tricliotomy of 
the nature of the learner. 

Corresponding to Absorption of tlie physical cycle we have, 1st, 
Acquisition or observation; corresponding to the Assimilation we 
have, 2d, Reflection ; corresponding to the fructification we have, 
3d, Expression. Now the vegetable terms are really the better, for 
Acquisition, Reflection and Expression w^ll tend to confine ns to 
the growth of the mind, which is only an important third of the 
subject in the hands of the educator. Nevertheless we shall use 
these terms, but with the breadth of signification which their origin 
w^arrants. They underlie the whole man; applying with equal 
force to physical, intellectual and moral growth, and as expressive 
of the natural growth of these several capacities, furnish us an all 
important index to the manner of using aids which we may wish to 
apply to them. 

And I cannot therefore emphasize too strongly the value of this 
trichotomy to the science of pedogogics, in whose domain there is 
so much that is purely empirical, so little that is permanently, phil- 
osophically established. Education, the mother of all the sciences, 
has been the most neglected of all her daughters. Under her au- 
spices methods are tried, thrown aside, buried, only to be resusci- 
tated in the next generation as new and feasible, which, under the 
touchstone of a few firmly fixed principles would at once be finally 
consigned to eternal oblivion. Teachers have been studying the 
science of mathematics, the science of physics, the science of lan- 
guage, while the science of teaching, the science of all sciences, they 
neglect, so that to-day it is no science, but is yet begging for some 
master to penetrate its accumulated details with the eye of a phil- 
osopher, discover its underlying, controlling principles and fix them 
for all time as those of mathematics or physics are fixed, so that 
they may be sure guides to the youngest and poorest of teachers as 
well as to the oldest and most successful — faithful tests which can 
be applied at once to all practices and methods to prove their worth 
or worthlessness. Had we such guides and tests, it could not be 
said, as it has been, that our schools are to-day, pedagogically 
speaking, great Augean stables, encumbered and befouled with ac- 
cumulated masses of effete methods which would be removed in a 
day by the Herculean agency of some few established principles. 



THE METHODS OF THE TP^ACHER. 119 

I am bold to maintain that the investigation just completed has 
reached results which partake somewhat of the character of such 
a pedagogical magnet, which if applied to this or that method by 
the teacher of any subject, will separate the good metal from the 
surrounding dross. 

The Methods of the Teacher. 

Nature is the first great teacher. To her we must ever look for 
guidance ; with her we must ever work. The phenomenon man as 
a learner is a phenomenon of nature ; growing, putting forth its 
activities under the direction and stimulus of its natural environ- 
ment. Let us now proceed to predicate some few general princi- 
ples upon these conclusions: 

The trichotomy of the educable man, as an activity, into the three 
stages of Acquisition, Reflection and Expression can be made not 
only a test of the value of present practices, but a guide to new 
and correct processes and methods. Not only to teachers, but 
to parents ; not only to parents, but to those who are training 
themselves, (and who of us is not) do I urge it as a key to proper 
development; and claim that, in every lesson learned, be it in 
business, in the office, in science, in physical culture, in intel- 
lectual training, if it be carefully seen to, that such lesson is a 
completed cycle, comprising invariably the three partial processes, 
Acquisition, Reflection and Expression, there will be derived from it 
the utmost good of which the learner is capable. 

How many impressions or acquisitions w^e receive. How few of 
these do we think to digest or reflect upon, to mentally incorporate 
— but how many less do we attempt to give expression to. 

Most teachers see that their pupils cram, absorb ; some require 
reflection; less give opportunity for expression. Yet a failure in 
any one of these steps is disaster to all. Acquisition is made thor- 
ough by reflection; sure by expression. Reflection is impossible 
without the materials of acquisition. Cogent expression is impos- 
sible without the preliminary stages of acquisition and reflection. 
To those who visit our schools, I would recommend these processes 
as a test of the true teacher. Especially should j^ou observe the 
.success Avith which the last stage, expression, is accomplished on 



120 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

the pupils. This is the so-called drudgery of teaching. It is so- 
much easier for the teacher to recite the whole lesson, and more 
beside, than to wait for the hesitating, stammering efforts of the 
children. It is so much easier to lecture ones self than to hear 
one's pupil's lecture. But it is taking the intellectual bread out of 
the mouth's of the pupils; and the talking, lecturing teacher, 
whether he be in public school or college, is the murderer of the 
minds of his pupils and deserves himself summary decapitation. 

I wish I had the time to stop right here and show how the most 
of us are unwittingly intellectual suicides in the fact that we con- 
tent ourselves in our reading, in our observations and experiences 
with hardly the first step in this cycle. For instance, how many 
books we read, absorb, without the slightest reflection, and so far 
as expression or reproduction of them is concerned, it never enters 
our minds. Whereas, if a book is worth reading, it is worthy of 
patient, mental Incorporation, or reflective assimilation. But not 
only should it be absorbed and assimilated, it should be reproduced 
by telling it to some one, or by writing out recollections of it, or 
by writing out something original which it has, as healthy food, 
stimulated to; there should be some firuitage. ''Who eats should 
work," is the law of health for the mind as well as the body. 

Intellectual dyspepsia is a thousand times more prevalent than 
physical dyspepsia. If infinitely less were eaten, mentally speak- 
ing, and what were eaten were digested, and finally, for here is 
where we all fail, if something were produced as fruitage in the way 
of expression, fiabbiness of mind, and sickliness of conversation 
would not be so prevalent. In this matter we manage ourselves 
better physically than we do intellectually, because perhaps our 
physical lies nearer the strength of our natural instincts. 

The application of this trichotomy to moral teaching is most edi- 
fying, in that it explains why so much of the morality which is 
taught in homes, in schools, and from the pulpit, produces a maud- 
lin sentimentality, rather than a vigorouus. Good Samaritanism. 

Many brilliant preachers are poor teachers of morality, because 
they accomplish only the first, or at most the second stage of their 
instruction. Apply to their management the test of our trich- 
otomy. 



THE METHODS OF THE TEACHER. 121 

In moral growth, just as in intellectual, there are the three stages 
of Acquisition, Reflection, and Expression, represented respectively 
by the familiar terms, moral precepts, moral sentiments, moral 
practice. Moral precepts may be learned perfectly by children who. 
not comprehending them, will not feel as a result the slightest 
moral sentiment. Moral precepts may be faithfully inculcated 
which may result in the most beautiful, tearful sentiments, and yet 
fail utterly to reach their true end, in a good deed, in a moral 
action, a product. 

It does not follow that because a child knows the right he will 
feel the right; nor does it follow that because he feels he will do it. 

The eloquent preacher may so portray the right that many a 
handkerchief will attest the resulting sentiment ; but if he lazily or 
carelessly omit to direct these sentiments to real action upon the 
poor and unfortunate in his parish ; unless he faithfully lead these 
charmed and tearfully sympathetic listeners to actual cases of dis- 
tress, and there give them opportunity to carry on their moral 
growth from the complacent stage of mere sentiment, to the pro- 
ductive stage of deeds of real charity and benevolence ; he not only 
fails to teach morality, but he really teaches immorality. He culti- 
vates in his hearers the habit of letting whatever moral motives he 
or any one else may arouse, terminate within themselves, and so 
establish in their lives not a practical morality, but a sickly senti- 
mentality that is ever ready to weep over an immaginary unfortu- 
nate, but is never ready to work for a real one. 

It is the so-called drudgery of preaching, as it is of teaching, to 
see that learners produce, practice ; to help them to practice, to 
bear patiently with their blunders as they try to practice that which 
it is so luxuriously easy to repeat in eloquent precept or illustrate 
in touching narrative. 

And the minister who maintains that his duties are concluded 
with his pulpit discourses, no matter how studied, how instructive, 
how charming they may be, is really a shirk and a criminal, for he 
is a practical teacher of immorality. As the lecturing teacher is a 
mental murderer, so the preaching minister is a moral destroyer. 

Thus do we apply with certainty our trichotomy, as a test, and 
thus does it not only point out, but explain errors and suggest their 



122 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

remedy. Its application to plijsical educatiou will be manifest 
without explication. 

Let every method in every subject have reference to and com- 
plete;, in its procedure processes corresponding to the natural pro- 
cesses of Absorption, Assimilation and Eeproduction, and the man- 
ner of our school work will be the best possible. A simple maxim, 
but an all important one. In it we have Nature's multiplicity and 
complexity unified and simplified, so far as the method of teaching 
are concerned. I care not what particular methods the Normal 
School may offer; I care not what magnificent structure of peda- 
gogical philosophy maybe established; I care not Avhat panacea 
some one-ideaed institution of learning may vend ; if a young or 
old, inexperienced or experienced, ignorant or scholarly teacher 
will faithfully complete in every idea, lesson or course of instruc- 
tion, these three phases of the cycle of natural growth, he will 
succeed and do good, because he is working with nature. Nature 
and the humblest pedagogue is a majority over all the possible ar- 
mies that can be mustered of theoretical professionals that have de- 
serted nature. 

Materials of the Teaching. 

Having thus brieflj^ considered the nature of the learner and the 
methods of the teacher, let us now seek to determine the character 
of the materials to be used and the order of their application. 

This leads us to an investigation of the environment of man as a 
growing, learning activity. As already said, activity implies some- 
thing to act against or upon. The mind or soul acts against or 
upon two things. Matter and mind. 

It is not too materiaistic to maintain that, so far as our existence 
here is concerned, mind, without matter, could not manifest itself. 
We are so conditioned that the physical is the indispensable carrier 
of the spiritual. And the educational system Avhich would ignore 
the material could in viciousness be equalled by that system alone 
which should ignore the spiritual. 

The progress of the individual, as that of society, is ever upon 
the principle that the more thoroughly do we subdue and subjugate 
matter, the more thoroughly do we exalt and enthrone mind and 



MATERIALS OF THE TEACHING. 123 

Spirit. Not by ignoring the material, but by placing it as step- 
stones under our feet do we attain to the spiritual. The vile mor- 
ality of the monasteries and the bookish scholasticism of the dark 
ages taught lessons we should not forget. 

But here, as heretofore, we must stud}^ nature. It is her child we 
have to teach, it is concerning her that we must teach. In determ- 
ing the method of the teacher we found the clue to our solution in 
the nature of the learner. We found that methods of teaching 
should be made for the learner, but that the learner should not be 
made for the methods of teaching. 

By the same criterion let us decide what are the materials of 
teaching or what is to be taught. 

The answer to the question should supply principles upon which 
a course of studj'' should be formed, pointing out distinctly what 
studies should be pursued at one time, or the lateral arrangement 
of the course; and in what order they should be taken up, or the 
longitudinal arrangement of the course. 

First, then, as to the lateral arrangement of a course of studies, 
or what studies should the pupil engage in at any given time. 

Here our trichotomy is again our guide. All the subjects taught 
at any one time to a pupil, whether he be in primary, high school or 
college should keep in view the tripartit character of the learner. 
One class of subjects should have reference to his powers of ab- 
sorption, or observation or acquisition ; another should have refer- 
ence to his power of assimilation or reflection; another to his 
power of expression, of reproducing. The usual studies of a 
scholar fall easily into these three divisions: Natural Sciences, 
Mathematics, Languages. The first especially affects the first 
stage or that of observation, the second has reference to 
reflection especiall}'', the third aims at the reproductive fac- 
ulties. In the primary school, therefore, the A-B-C-Darian by 
regular lessons upon real objects should be taught the elements 
of science, should be taught to observe with all his senses and 
faculties. This division of school work is too much neglected 
throughout the usual curriculum, and especially so in the lower 
grades, so that by the time the pupil has reached the higher grades 
his powers of observation and acquisition are blunted b}' neglect 
and inactivity. Studies are so confined to the school book or school 



124 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

room, that the pupil is really trained in tlie habit of not seeing, not 
hearing, not feeling. This is the greatest defect in our school sys- 
tems, and is a relic of the scholastic bias. They do not sufficiently 
train these faculties which are indeed the main sources of supply, 
the gateway to the other capabilities of the active man. 

Again the abcdarian must be supplied with materials which will 
especially act upon his reflective capacity. Fortius purpose, simple, 
sensible lessons in numbers should be given him at the first, and 
would that our teachers could understand why they teach arith- 
metic to beginners! It is not to make mathmeticians, it is not to 
hav^hem commit to memory dead tables and deader defiinitions — 
it isTOcrely to train them to reason, to reflect upon abstractions, 
and when a teacher requires pupils to recite in arithmetic what is 
beyond their power of reasoning, he does not teach, he crams, he 
stuffs, stupifies, stultifies. Nevertheless arithmetic should be 
taught to abcdarians, at first and always, for they are at first and 
always reasoning beings. 

Finally, the abcdarian should be cultivated in the power of ex- 
pression, in the use of language. This division of the work is pro- 
vided for in the reading classes, but I have seen teachers teach, 
reading as if they had entirely forgotten the purpose it was to serve. 

So I might pass along the whole course of studies and show how, 
laterally considered, the subjects taught have, or should have, ref- 
erence to threefold activities of the learner. The first and last 
stages are too generally neglected. The first in the lower schools, 
the last in the higher schools. Comparatively few colleges provide 
any regular instruction in the original expression of ideas. 

Thus we see that, as our trichotomy indicated how each subject 
should be taught, so it clearly points out the simultaneous features 
of what should be taught. It may not be necessary further to re- 
mark that, while the natural sciences are acquisitive, they should 
of course be taught with reference to reflection and expression as 
well. This is implied in the discussion of the methods. Every- 
thing should be taught with reference to the tripartite nature of the 
learner. Yet each subject leans in one of the three directions, and 
is therefore more favorable to the development of that side of the 
learner. 



MATERIALS OF THE TEACHING. - 125 

The longitudinal arrangement of materials is also dependent upon 
the nature of the learner. The earlier part of a man's life is given 
to acquisition. As he comes to maturity he is more reflective, and 
finally, having attained his prime, he becomes a reproducer ; that is, 
gives expression to his acquired and assimilated products in the 
form of his life work. 

The earlier part of the course of studies, therefore, should be of 
an objective character, and devoted especially to the acquisition of 
ideas. The middle portion should call forth the reasoning powers. 
The higher course should conserve and utilize all the materials ab- 
sorbed and assimilated in the constant practice of expression. 

Thus, again, does our trichotomy lead to the solution. And is it 
not clear and simple? Nature is ever so. She speaks as plainly to 
her humblest as to her proudest child. Cannot the poorest member 
of our profession see in these conclusions practical suggestions for 
his own self-management and for his school? Will not our wisest 
teachers find something of truth and practical wisdon in this study? 

How nearly the aims, methods and courses of study in our public 
schools approximate to or how much they depart from the ideal 
thus formed, I shall not at present consider ; yet, that they are in 
the way of its realization cannot be denied ; but that they need and 
are ready for some considerable reconstruction and modification is 
also true. 

Let us now recapitulate : 

To our first question : What are our public schools to do? we 
have answered: They are not to make specialists, but to produce 
capable, willing, free individuals. 

To answer the second question : How are they to do it? we first 
determined that man, as a learner, is a growing activitj'^, whose 
cycle is completed in the three processes of Acquisition, Assimila- 
tion, Expression, and from this analysis have we inferred the man- 
ner of the public school work and the nature of its materials and 
their arrangement laterall}^ and longitudinally. It has been my 
object to present for inspection, the elements of the philosophy of 
school organization — to show that our public school system, al- 
though almost entirely an empirical product, is yet the creature of 
fixed principles, which, consciously or unconsciously to those who 
are managing it, control and shape it. Whether I have even par- 
tially succeeded in ray undertaking must now be left to the kindly 
and intelligent judgment of the reader. 



126 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

APPENDIX D. 

Outlining. 

This means of investigation and review is a clearly defined science. 
That is, it involves certain technicalities for which fixed names must 
be furnished, and certain principles which may be systematically 
presented. 

While the following logical discussion should not be given or im- 
itated by the teacher in first presenting the subject to the school, 
it will, I hope, furnish such aid as will ensure a consistent use of 
terms, and so make more effective any efforts to introduce what I 
consider one of he healthiest methods of investigation and instruc- 
tion. 

Outline of Outlining. 
11 Systems. 

12 Brace. 22 Position. 32 Exponential. 42 Letter. 52 Composite. 
2^ Nomenclature. 
12 Notation. 
13 Brace. 2^ Index. 
1^ Arms. 14 General. 
24 Apex. 24 Special. 

15 Co-ordinal. 2^ Subordinal. 
22 Headings. 

13 Superordinate. 23 Co-ordinate. 33 Sul)ordinate. 
31 Divisions. 

12 Definition. 22 Partition. 32 Division. 42 Description. 52 Ex- 
emplification. 62 Comparison and Contrast. 72 Narration. 
82 Applications. 

41 Principles. 

12 No heading should be introduced which has no co-ordiuate. 
22 Ordinarily, all co-ordinates should stand in a vertical order. 

Sometimes a lateral ^arrangement of co-ordinates (as in this 

outline) will economize space. 
32 Subordinates should stand underneath and to the right of their 

superordinate s. 

42 The theme should not be indexed, unless it is itself subordinate 

to some superordinate. 



ELABORATION OF THE OUTLINE. V2T 

Elaboration of the Outline. 

Definition. — Ontlining is that method of investgating a given sub- 
ject which consists (1) of the determination of its important divis- 
ions and subdivisions, and (2) of their arrangement in a systematic 
order, preparatory to elaboration. 

Tlie subject to be investigated is called the Theme; the divisions 
and subdivisions. Heads (or Headings) and Subheads; the Theme 
with its subheads properly arranged, an Outline. The term Head 
or Heading is applicable to the Theme or any of its Subheads. 

The process of arranging the heads according to their Bank or 
logical re[ation is termed Ordination or Banking. 

11 Systems — A system of outlining is a method of indicating the 
rank of the heads and subheads by certain dotation, that is, 
by certain logical marks, such as braces, headings, etc. 

12 The JB/'ace system ordinates headings by Brace notation; that 
is, uses Braces, thus : 



Tables. 
(Theme.) 



Parts. 



( Top. 
I Body. 
( Legs. * 



Sides. 
Drawers. 



{Dining. 
Parlor. 
Billiard, 



22 The Position system ordinates by placing heads of equal rank 
vertically or horizontally, and those inferior to a certain 
head underneath and to the right of it, thus : 
Tables. 
Parts. 
Top. 
Body. 

Sides. Draw^ers. 
Legs. 

Dining. Parlor. Billiard, etc. 

32 The Exponential system, kinds invented by A. Holbrook, ordinates 

by position, but also indicates the logical rank of each 

head by a number (Index) composed of a basal figure 

(Co-ordinal) and an exponential figure (Subordinal) , thus ; 



128 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

Table (Theme) 

11 Parts. 

12 Top. 22 Bod3\ 32 Legs. 

13 Sides. 

23 Drawers. 
21 Kinds. 

12 Dining. 22 Parlor. 22 Billierd, etc. 

42 The Letter system ordinate s by position and by letters or sim- 
ple figures, thus : 

Table. 

A. Parts. 

a. Top. b. Parlor, e. Billiard. 

1. Sides. 

2. Drawers. 

B. Kinds. 

a. Dining, b. Body. e. Legs 

52 The Composite system, taking the Position system as its base, 
ordinates with any or all the others, according to the 
space to be occupied on the paper. 

21 Nomenclature is that division of our science which treats of the 
technical terms or names used. 

12 Notation is that peculiarity of a system by which it indicates 

the logical rank of the headings. 
13 The Brace consists of the 1* Arms and 2* Apex. The apex 
of a brace always points to the heading, the subheads of 
which the arms are made to include. The Reverse brace 
and Double brace are sufficiently defined by their names. 
The apex or arms of a brace may be extended to any 
length and in any direction. 

23 The Index is the numeral used in the Exponential system. 
Every head has a 2* Special Index, which is composed of 
the 15 Co-ordinal, which numbers the heads of equal 
rank, and the 2^ ^S'zt&ortZznaZ, which indicates the degree of 
logical inferiority or Subordination of that he head. Thus 
the special index of •' Drawers " is 23 . The Co-ordinal, 2, 



ELABORATION OF THE OUTLLNE. 129 

indicates that it is the 2d' of the two equal rank heads 
under " Body." The subordinal, 3, indicates that it is in 
the 3d degree of subordination to the Theme, " Table." 
Every head has also a 1* General Index, which is a collection 
of those special indexes, starting from the Theme, which 
will completely indicate the heading in the position of the 
general outline ; or, it is the Special Index of the heading 
preceded by the indexes of its successive superordinates, 
thus, 11 22 23 is the General Index oi the heading, " draw- 
ers." 

22 Headings. The nomenclature of the headings is very simple. 
The heading next superior to a certain head is its Superor- 
dinate. Any superior head is a superordinate to its infer- 
ior, thus: "table" is the superordinate of "parts" and 
"kinds," it is also a superordinate to every head in the 
outline. 

A head inferior to a certain head is its Subordinate. Any 
inferior head is a subordinate to all its superior or super- 
ordinates, thus, "parts" and "kinds" are the Subordi- 
nates to "table.?' Any subhead is a subordinate to the 
theme. 

A head equal in rank with another, and included under the 
same immediate superordinate head is its Co-ordinate, 
thus, "top," "body" and "legs "are co-ordinates, and 
each one is said to be co-ordinate with the others. Notice 
the propositions, superordinate to, subordinate to, co-or- 
dinate with. 

31 Divisions. — These are general heads to be used in outlining 
subjects. All of these can be used with most subjects. 
The most of them with all. They are suggestive of the main 
lines of thought to be taken in the discussion of a theme. 
For instance, if table is the theme upon which I wish to 
write, I will first outline it, using these eight divisions for 
my subheads or subordinates. I should indicate in the out- 
line that it should be defined, by the head. Definition; second, 
that its parts should be given by the head, P«m'^ion; third, 



130 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

that the kinds of table should be given by the head, Divisions f 
fourth, that a table should be described by Description; fifth, 
that some good example of a table should be given by Exem- 
plification ; sixth, that certain tables, for instance, that of a 
poor man and that of a rich man, should be compared and 
contrasted, by Comparison and Contrast; seventh, that the 
history of a certain table, or of tables generally, should be 
given by Narrative ; eighth, that the uses of tables should be 
hy applications . Ofcourse these main heads would then be each 
divided and subdivided, which would be the further expan- 
sion of the outline. After thus outlining the subject, an 
essay upon the theme "tables" would be an easy matter; 
at any rate, " nothing to write " would not be the complaint. 



APPENDIX E. 

Is There a Science of Education? 

(1) . What is meant by the term. Science ? It has different 
significations, apparently. Geometry and Physiology, for instance, 
are called Sciences. Yet they are very unlike, so far as their Sci- 
entific characteristics are concerned. 

(2). Geometry presents a systematic evolution of principles 
from principles with a rigor of logic as beautiful as it is exacting. 

(3). In Physiology, on the other hfftid there is, apparently, no 
such orderly procedure, and no pretense is made, seemingly, of es- 
tablishing a multitude of propositions by authority of a few higher 
ones. 

(4). Is Physiology, then, strictly speaking, not a science? Is 
no body of knowledge to be ranked as a Science until it attains the 
formal exactness of the Mathematics? Is it to be expected that 
every so called Science is approximating to, and will finally reach 
this Mathematical perfection? 

(5). By answering these questions we shall be enabled to de- 
termine the true status, present and prospective, of the Science of 
Education. 



IS THERE A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 131 

(6) . A Science is n body of sj'stematised knowledge, with regard 
to a given subject-matter. 

(7) . The subject-matter of any given Science is a defined phe- 
nomenon. 

(8) . A phenomenon is an assemblage of properties, expressed 
by a fixed name. 

(9) . Knowledge is the determined relation of equality between 
the properties of a given phenomenon under their various possi- 
bilities, 

(10). Sj^stematized knowledge is a collection of the determined 
equations between the properties of a given phenomenon, grouped 
according to some unifi/ing principle. 

(11). The limits of a given Science are determined by the defi- 
nition of its subject-matter. The extent of a given Science de- 
pends upon the complexity of the subject-matter and the number 
and variety of its possibilities. 

(12). The rigor of system with which the body of knowledge 
of any Science may be presented depends upon the number and 
complexity of the properties under their possibilities of the de- 
fined subject-matter, and our fiimiliarlty with them. 

(13). Let us examine the subject-matter of a few familiar 
Sciences to determine their Scientific character. This will furnish 
us the requisites of Science. 

(14). Then, by examining the body of knowledge known as 
the Science of Education, we may decide whether it possesses the 
requisites of a true Science. When, if any of these are lacking, 
we may decide what they are and determine how they shall be pro* 
vided. Preliminary to this are a few considerations which will 
aid us. 

(15). We have said that the subject-matter of a given Science 
was a phenomenon (7) and that a phenomenon is an assemblage 
of properties expressed by a name (8). The more common word 
for a phenomenon is a Thing. Any thing is a phenomenon. That 
every object of the mind which can be designated by the word. 
Thing, is a mere group of properties, a moment's thought will 
show. 

(16). Take snoKJ, for instance. What is it? It is a group of 
certain properties such as whiteness, crystalline structure, falling 



132 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

from the clouds, melting into water, etc., which when recognized 
by different minds as forming a group, their common expression 
will be Snow. What it is that possesses these properties we do 
not and cannot knoio, except by faith. It is the substantia, 
*' the thing itself," the consideration of which in this connection, 
is unnecessary, fruitless and misleading. We learn what snow is 
by determining its properties. So with every other object of the 
human understanding. 

(17). Let us go farther. We determine the propeties of any 
given phenomenon by simply deciding that they are like or unlike 
the observed properties of other phenomena. When we say snow 
is white, we mean that in that regard it is like some other phenom- 
enon which makes a similar impression on the retina. When we 
say snow will melt, we mean that it undergoes a change from solid 
to liquid form, which is familiar to us in other phenomena, and 
so on. 

(18) . In other words, whiteness expresses a recognized likeness, 
or an equation between the manifestations of certain phenomena. 
Every word that expresses a property is an equation, or an expression 
for a relation of equality or likenes» recognized by two or more minds 
as existing in certain phenomena . 

(19) . The relativity of all human knowledge is thus sufficiently 
indicated. 

(20) . We now come to the consideration of a few of the different 
so called Sciences. 

(21). Anthmetic. What is the property which the mind first ab- 
stracts from things first presented to its consciousness? Observe 
the infant when it first opens its eyes to its surrounding environ- 
ment. It sees nothing because it does not see something. Its first 
indication of consciousness, so far as this sense is concerned, ap- 
pears after a few weeks, when it begins to fix its eyes on one object. 
It sees some thing when it notices one thing. The world at first, to 
its infantile gaze, is a great single whole, the first knowledge of 
which comes from discovering some of its many parts, or from dis- 
covering that it is composed of parts. The properties of these 
parts are not recognized at all. It will follow a light part as sepa- 
rate from the surrounding dark part. It will follow the face of its 
mother as a part separate from the continuous whole which first 



IS THERE A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION, 133 

impressed its retina. While the face of its mother is recognized 
simply as a part of a continuous whole, it is not distinguished until 
as a single whole its many parts are again separated. So that the 
first process of learning is the separation of the single whole into 
its many parts, and, at the same instant, the grouping of the many 
parts into a single whole. The same observations are applicable 
to the first tactile impressions, or other primary sensations. 

(22^ „ Now the property abstracted first in all these phenomena 
is not light, nor color, nor form, nor size, but simply unity and 
plurality — the one, the many. 

(23) . We see, then, that in these, the earliest of the intuitions 
of the human mind, we have the properties that constitute the phe- 
nomenon Number, which is the subject-matter of Arithmetic. 

(24.) Arithmetic, then, is the Science which treats of the phe- 
nomenon, Number, which phenomenon has only the two properties 
unity and plurality und the two- possibilities of increase and de- 
crease. 

(25). We have said (12) that the rigor of system with which any 
body of knowledge may be presented depends upon the number and 
complexity of the properties under theii possibilities of its given 
subject-matter and our familiarity with them. See how this is illus- 
trated in the Science of Arithmetic. Its subject-matter is the simp- 
lest of all phenomena, because it has the fewest properties subject 
to the fewest possibilities. These properties being the earliest in- 
tuitions of the mind and their possibilities being those which, from 
the necessities of human experience, are most frequently consid" 
ered, they are the most thoroughly understood, and the number 
and order of the relations of equality existing between them have 
become better established than those of any other science. Arith- 
metic is therefore the most systematic, that is, the most logical and 
therefore the most scientific of all the Sciences. 

(26). Geonutrij. After Number, what abstraction is next ac- 
complished by the mind? Immediately succeeding, or perhaps at 
the same time of, the recognition of parts as constituting a whole, 
is the recognition of the contour of those parts and of the whole 
as limiting portions of space and presenting the idea of space and 
position In space. In other words the property of magnitude is 
abstracted, which is soon discovered to be a phenomenon of two 



134 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

properties, extent and position with the possibilities of change of 
position and increase and decrease of extent, forming a new subject 
matter for a Science. 

(27). Geometry is, therefore, the science which treats of the 
phenomenon, 3Iagnitude, whose properties are position and extent 
with the possibilities of change (of position) and increase and de- 
crease of extent. 

C28). From the prcfperty, position, springs tlie idea of motion 
and direction. The property of extent involves linear, superficial 
and volumetric extension. The relations of equality found to exist 
in these properties under their different possibilities form the body 
of knowledge which constitutes the Science of Geometry Since 
these abstractions are among the earliest intuitions of the mind 
and their possibilities of change, increase and decrease, from the 
necessities of experience, are constantly in the observation of man, 
they are well understood. Their relations of equality have been 
carefully distinguished and the order of these equations thoroughly 
unified. In other words, the knowledge of Geometry has become 
quite clearly defined and thoroughly established; that is, it has at- 
tained a rigor of logical procedure which makes it a truly scientific 
Science. 

(29) . The very limited extent of this Science should not pass 
unnoticed. It must be remembered that out of the infinite number 
of magnitudes only the few regular ones have been made the sub- 
ject of equations. 

(30). Neither should it be supposed that the system of Geom- 
etry is fixed beyond question, Euclid has done most to give it log- 
ical form, but many improvements have been made upon his system, 
and every new Geometry has for its mission the founding of a new 
set of definitions, axioms and postulates and a better order of pro- 
cedure Attention is here called to this, for the reason that the 
claim is often made that the foundation of Mathematics and their 
order of procedure is fixed and exact. Tliej^ are fixed, but not be- 
yond question. They are exact, but only approximately. The ad- 
vantage, therefore, which they have over other sciences In this re- 
gard is due to the simplicity of their subject-matters and their more 
frequent occurrence in human experience. 



IS THERE A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 135 

(31). Qualitative and Quantitative Geometry. Another distinction 
arises in Geometry which could not have arisen in arithmetic, be- 
cause it is dependent upon it. 

(32). So long as the equations of Geometry are between prop- 
erties only, without relation to units, the discussion is purely qual- 
itative, that is, it is a discussion of qualities, but the moment a 
quantity of linear, superficial or volumetric extension, or of angular 
divergence is introduced, it becomes quantitative; that is, the dis- 
cussion is of amounts and quantities of properties involved, which 
quantities must be expressed in terms of an assumed unit of the 
property under discussion. The introduction of units is the intro- 
duction of Arithmetic, the Science of units. 

(33). The dividing line between qualitative and quantitative 
Geometry, is the proportion. At this point the Science of Geom- 
etry becomes Mensuration and Trigonometry, the latter science be- 
ing merely an extension of Mensuration by an ingenious invention 
whereby the measurements of angles is made homogeneous with 
the measurement of rectilinear magnitudes. 

(34) . It will be best at this point to draw the important conclu- 
sion, that what has been pointed out concerning Geometry is true 
of all the Sciences. They are qualitative until they involve units, 
(and so the Science of units, Arithmetic), when they become quanti- 
tative. 

(35). In the development of any Science, the qualitative stage 
invariably precedes the quantitative. 

(36), During the qualitative stage, relations or properties are 
classified, while during the quantitative, they are measured or ex- 
pressed abstractly in terms of some assumed units. 

(37) . The classification of relations is the unification of these 
relations, with reference to their origin, or with reference to ante- 
cedent and consequent. 

(38). Having examined the subject-matter of two leading math- 
ematical Sciences, let us now consider two typical Natural Sciences. 

(39) . Natural Philosophy is a very indefinite term, expressing a 
group of Sciences, but as it is the popular designation in a ma- 
jority of our text-books of a somewhat determined body of truth, 
it will answer the purpose of our present illustration. 



136 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

(40) . The difficulty one experiences in attempting tO' state the 
subject-matter of this Science is the best indication of its un-scien- 
tific cliaracter. Is it the extrinsic properties of matter, is it mo- 
tion, is it force, is it macliinery, is it tlie molecular motions, heat, 
light, and electricity? 

(41). Now, if Natural Philosophy were a clearly defined system 
of truths, the area of its investigations would not be thus ill-de- 
fined and scattered; the tendency, therefore, as it progresses, is to 
fix limits by defining subject-matters. So that, now, instead of 
Natural Philosophies we have distinct texts on Mechanics, Optics, 
etc., etc. 

(42) . These new works simply indicate a more complete unifica- 
tion of the properties and relations involved. Each text treating 
upon a group, formed by reason of some common similarity. 

(43). Let us notice now the character of this progress. At 
first, Natural Philosophy was a mere collection of truths with ref- 
erence to matter, motion and force, exhibiting little order or system 
in their statements. 

(44). Further investigation of these truths lead to a better ar- 
rangement of them and introduced groupings, or classification. 

(45) . Where the practical demands of life have required it, cer- 
tain phenomena have been especially studied and have reached the 
quantitative stage; for instance^ the lever, motion, weight, light, 
heat, etc., etc. The law of gravitation was but the quantitative 
statement of a qualitative phenomena. It is simply a proportion 
whereby units may be applied to that force. The laws of the ma- 
chines, of light, sound, hydrostatics, etc., are all so many propor- 
tions which make an arbitrary unit the means of expressing quan- 
tities of the different phenomena. 

(46) . But notice what a heterogeneous, ill-assorted mass of ma- 
terial is still in our Natural Philosophies. See how muddy and 
illogical are even our latest treatises on the sub-divisions of this 
subject. Do we as a consequence hesitate to call it a Science, be- 
cause the rigor and beauty of the Mathematics are considerably 
absent? 

(47) . Yet there are departments of this Science which are as- 
suming a mathematical rigor. Newton, in his Principia, cast 
much of it into this form. His genius penetrated the incoher-^ 



IS THERE A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 137 

ent inexact facts and generalized to laws all of wliich are theoreti- 
cally correct, none of which is practically exact. 

Long before him, Archimedes divined the abstract ideals of Statics 
and Dynamics which to-day are the foundations of all the scientific 
rigor of which these sciences are capable. 

(48) . Let it be known that the abstractions of these physical 
sciences are not unlike those of Geometry — in that they are exact 
only in theory, never in practice ; yet are the necessary data of all 
exact reasoning. 

(49). For instance, as line, surface, volume, etc., are abstrac- 
tions impossible to realize in practice, yet indispensable to all rea- 
soning, so, for instance, the lever and its law are impossibilities in 
practice. There never was such a thing as a mathematical lever; 
nor was there ever a lever to which the law of the lever was ex- 
actly applicable. Real levers are never more than approximations 
to the ideal lever. 

(50) . The abstractions of both Geometry and Physical Sciences 
could be regarded as impossible, inconceivable absurdities, yet 
they are the necessary starting points of all quantitative deductions. 

(51). This anomally.is so familiar to us in these departments, 
and has so long carried the stamp of such respectable and unques- 
tioned authority, it is next to impossible, by calling attention to 
them, to awaken mistrust in their applications. 

(52). Let us now anticipate, a little, in regard to Educational 
Science, and lay down a canon with regard to its abstractions. All 
the fundamental abstractions upon which a Science of Education is 
to be built, will be exact only in theory, never in practice. As the 
real lever is an ever approximating one, but never perfect one, so 
the real phenomena of Educational Science must ever approximate 
to, but never reach the exact abstractions which must form its foun- 
dation. 

(53) . When authority and time have determined and fixed these 
abstractions, they will be no more liable to disturbance than are the 
familiar abstractions, line, levers, falling bodies, light, etc., etc. 

(54) . Concerning Natural Philosophy we conclude that its sub- 
ject-matter is so complex and ill-defined that it is truly scientific 
only in spots as it were, and much of the body of truth for which 
it stands is in a very chaotic, unclassified condition, while portions 



138 SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

of it have attained the quantitative stage, and can be expressed 
with mathematical rigor. 

(55). We do not therefore reject it from the Sciences, but en- 
gage tlie more earnestlj^, first, in verifying its phenomena with ref- 
erence to cause and effect, and, second, in applying to them units 
whereby they may be more thoroughly reduced to a quantitative 
condition. 

(56). We come now to Physiology. Is it a Science? Our con- 
clusion is easily anticipated. The subject-matter of Phj^siology is 
the Human-Body. Could there be a more complex phenomenon? 
It involves all nature, in a sense. Inanimate and animate phenom- 
ena are here united and lead on to the most complex and difficult of 
all phenomena — the intelligence, the soul. 

(57). When we consider of how much greater practical neces- 
sity to human existence is the knowledge of the lever than of the 
muscle, or even the intelligence that wields it, we can readily un- 
derstand why the phenomena of Physiology are comparatively new 
as subjects of human study. 

(58) . Again, since the study of these phenomena is clearly in 
its youth, we should expect that the Science would be yet in its 
qualitative stage, and that the unification of its phenomena would 
be the engrossing object. 

(59). When the relations of food, heart, blood, nerves, mind 
have been sufficiently investigated, and, as so many causes and effects, 
are approximately understood, when units of food, units of mus- 
cular action, units of nervous power, units of intelligence have 
been assumed and their laws of relation and inter-relations ab- 
stracted and affirmed ; Physiology will then have reached a quanti- 
tative stage. 

(60) . Strange as it may seem, this stage is more nearly reached 
by stock-dealers, gymnasts and pugilists than by Scientists. The 
feeding and clothing of armies is helping to give it some practical 
impetus. 

We have now investigated very briefly, the characteristics of a 
few Sciences as Sciences, let us proceed to make application of our 
conclusions to the solution of our question, *' Is Education a Sci- 
ence?" 



IS THERE A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 139 

(61). The phenomenon, (7), of which the Science of Education 
most treats, is the human mind as as an object of training. 

(62). This phenomenon represents an assemblage of properties 
the most varied and complex, with possibilities as unlimited as they 
are indeflSnite. (8). 

(63). The limits and extent of the Science will therefore be ill 
defined until the phenomenon and its possibilities are better under- 
stood. (U). 

(64). The rigor of system which characterizes the mathematics 
(4) we need not look for, as the complexity of the phenomenon is 
too great, and our familiarity with Its properties and possibilities 
too slight. (12). 

(65). The Qualitative stage (34) of an Educational Science is 
just being reached. We are passing out of the purely recording, 
or historical, or empirical phase into that of unification or classifi- 
cation. The unity of origin (37) is being searched for and will be 
fixed upon during the present decade. 

(66). The Quantitative stage (36) will undoubtedly be reached 
in certain divisions of the science, while other portions will long, 
perhaps always, remain merely qualitative, just as has been the 
case with Natural Philosophy.. (43) Quantitative Educational 
Science will first appear in the department of Logic, some portions 
of which Jevons and other authors have already reduced very nearly 
to a quantitative condition. 

(67). We conclude then, distinctly, that there is soon to be a 
Science of Education; not in the sense that Geometry is a Science, 
but in the sense that Physiology is a Science. Many works upon 
education have been published already which are quite as entitled 
to be called scientific treatises as are many other texts treating of 
other departments of knowledge. 

(68) . The Science of Education must be the outgrowth of Teach- 
ing, or the process of education. By studying the process, and by 
this means alone, we shall be able to fix the principles involved. 

(69) . Teaching is a process, controlled by principles, ariving at 
products. 

(70). Teaching being a process, is therefore an art, not a 

science, 

(71). A treatise upon, or systematic arrangement and presenta- 



SCHOOL EXPOSITIONS. 

tion of the principles controlling the process or art, would be the 
Science of Education. 

(72) . The product of the process of teaching is the power of 
happy, unselfish self improvement. 

(73). ^hQ Art of Teaching is, then, the systematical process of 
training the growing mind toward the power of happy unselfish 
self improvement. 

(74) , The Science of Education is the systematic arrangement 
and presentation of the principles which control the process of 
teaching, 

(75). The principles of education must be bold abstractions 
never to be realized, but ever striven toward. (48, 49, 50). 

(76) . When first stated these principles may be violently op- 
posed, yet being axiomatic, they will gradually sink into human 
consciousness there to remain no more liable to the disturbance 
than are the axioms of Geometry, or Newton's laws of motion, or 
Archimedes' principles of Mechanics. 

(77) . The fundamental principles of education will be of three 
kinds, Definitions, Axioms, Postulates. 

(78) . The definitions will fix distinctly the nature of the phenom- 
enon by giving its fundamental properties, technical names. 

(79). The Postulates will assert the elementary possibilities 
upon which all other properties or training processes are based. 

(80) , The Science of Education is not the Science of the Mind. 
It will depend upon that science for many of its terms and techni- 
calities, but these terms and technicalities will be taken without 
other explanation than mere definition. 

(81) . The Science of Education treats only of those properties 
of the Mind involved in its development, or simply of the mind in 
reference to its training. (61). 

(82) . The Principles of the Science of Education will be merely 
the general statement of processes which will have their special ap- 
plications or realization in particular methods or processes detailed 
in the Art of Education. 

(83) . In the process or method of solving an equation, transpo- 
sition is a principle by which it may be reduced; but again trans- 
position is a method or process, depending upon the principle, " If 
equals be subtracted from equals, the results are equals." So that 



IS THERE A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 141 

principles are simply the most general processes— and processes or 
methods are the aggregation of exemplifications of principles. 

(84). The Science of Education will therefore include the few 
most general methods or most universal principles. 

(85). As the principles of machines apply clearly to very few 
and the most elementary machines, yet are involved in all (50) ; as 
the principles of Geometry apply clearly to very few and the 'most 
regular magnitudes, yet are involved in all (29) ; so the principles 
of education will apply clearly to but very few and the simplest of 
cases, yet they will be involved in all. 

(86) . As the magnitudes of Geometry and the machines of Me- 
chanics are perfected ideals (49, 50) impossible to realize in practice 
(for a perfectly straight line or a frictionless machine are ever im- 
possibilities), so the mind which forms the subject matter of the 
Science of Education must be a perfected ideal never to be realized 
In practice. 

(87) . As we do not discard the Science of Geometry because 
we can never draw a straight line, or the Science of Mechanics be- 
cause we cannot have a lever without weight and without friction 
and in a vacuum, neither should we discard the Science of Educa- 
tion because we do not find the theoretical mind of which it must 
treat. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Air-Pumps, etc 50 

Algebra, Methods in 50 

Apparatus, Holbrook's Pneu- 
matic 50 

Arithmetic, Methods in 22 

Astronomy, Methods in 88 

Axioms of Education 116 

Botanical Display at My Exposi- 
tion of 1880 75 

Botanical Record Book, Hol- 
brook's 73 

Botany, Methods in, 66; Time to 
Teach 67 

Cabinets to be Collected by Stud- 
ents in Geology 75 

Calculus, Methods in 88 

Centennial Educational Exhibit; 

Its Defects 10 

Chemistry, Methods in 63 

Course of Studies, 123; Lateral 
Arrangement of, 123; Longi- 
tudinal Arrangement of 125 

Demonstration of a Theorem; 

Outline of 85 

Di'awing, 3Iethods in 29 

Education Defined, 112; Axioms 
of, 116 ; Cycle of its Pi'ocess, 118; 
Science of Neglected, 118; Is 
there a science of, 130; Indus- 
trial 107 

Examinations, Written, 15; Peri- 
odic, 15; Final 15 

(142) 



PAGE 

Examples, Outline of; Solution of 83 

Exhibitions; The Usual Schools 
Condemned 89 

Exhibits, School, The Needs of, 
7; Unsatisfactory Character of. 88 

Experimentation in Natural Phil- 
osophy, 46; Directions for Pu- 
pils About to Experiment Be- 
fore Their Class 48 

Experiments, A List of Simple 
Ones in Natural Philosophy 51 

Exposition Defined, 8; A Means 
Not an End 9a 

Force, Outline of, 43; Molar, 45; 
Molecular 45 

Geography, Methods in 23 

Geological Exhibit at My Expo- 
sition of 1880 80 

Geology, Methods in 70 

Geometry, Methods in 85 

Grammar, English, Methods in... 25 

Herbarium Sheets for Botany 
Class 75 

History, Methods in, 30; Outline 
of U. S 33 

Holbrook's Pneumatic Appara- 
tus, 50; Botanical Record Book, 
74; Herbarium Sheets 75 

Industrial Education 107 

Infinitive Constructions, Outline 
of 27 



INDEX. 



US 



PAGE 

Language Lessons Should Al- 
ways be Taught in the Reading 
Class 19 

Literature, The Literature Class 
Should be a Reading Class 19 

Languages, The Dead, Methods 
in 88 

Lecturing Teacher a Mind Mur 
derer ]20 

May Drawing 23 

Mrterials for Exposition, Prepa- 
ration of, 13; Sources, 17; 

Mounting 91 

Materia Success, Outline of 103 

Matter, Outline of. 42 

Mechanics, Methods in 83 

Methods of Education, First 
Branches of, 105; Fundamental 

Principles Stated 119 

Morality, The Existing Failures 

to Teach Explained 120 

Motion, Outline of. 46 

Mounting the Material of the Ex- 
position; 91; Of Lidividiial Pa- 
pers, 92; Of Papers of the Whole 
School 94 

Natural Philosophy, Methods in, 
41; Simple Experiments in 
Enumerated 51 

Outline of Infinitives, 17; United 
States History, 33; Human 
Body orPhisiology, 39; Matter, 
42; Force, 43; Molar Force, 45; 
Motion, 46; Plants, 68; Solution 
of Example, 83-5; Material Sci- 
ences, 103- Of Outlining 126 

Outlining, Explanation of. 126 



PAGE 

Penmanship, Methods in 28 

Phisiology, Methods in, 38; Out- 
line of 39 

Plant, Outline of, 68; Order of 

Examination of. 70 

Plant Record Book 74 

Pneumatic Apparatus 50 

Postulates of Education 116 

Preaching Ministers Moral Mur- 
derers 120 

Principles, First, of Education... 105 

Preparation of School Work 13 

Public Schools, What are They to 

Do? 105 

Readmg, Methods in, 18; Advanc- 
ed 19 

Recitations, Written 14 

RevieAV, Written 15 

Rhetorics, Methods in 89 

School Exhibitions, The Usual 

Condemned 9 

School Expositions Defined, 5; 
For all Grades and Kinds, of 
Schools, 10; What They Should 
Show, 11 ; A Means Not an End, 
90; Report of Two of the Vine- 
land Public Schools 98 

Science of Education, Is There a. 130 

Science, Outline of 103 

Solution of Examples, Outline 

of 83 

Spelling, Methods in _ 

Study, Written 7 

Trigonometry, Methods in 87 

Writing, Methods 28 

Zoology, Methods in 81 



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